Directed Evolution and In Vitro Panning of Virus Vectors

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods of achieving directed evolution of viruses by in vivo screening or “panning” to identify viruses comprising scrambled AAV capsids having characteristics of interest, e.g., tropism profile and/or neutralization profile (e.g., ability to evade neutralizing antibodies). The invention also provides scrambled AAV capsids and virus particles comprising the same.

RELATED APPLICATION INFORMATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/157,696, filed Jan. 17, 2014, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 to and is a divisional of, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/990,460, filed Oct. 29, 2010, and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,632,764 on Jan. 21, 2014, which is a 35 U.S.C. §371 national stage application of PCT Application No. PCT/US2009/002608, filed Apr. 29, 2009, and published in English on Nov. 12, 2009, as International Publication No. WO 2009/137006, which claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/049,160, filed Apr. 30, 2008, the disclosure of each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF FEDERAL SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under Grant No. 2RO1 AR 45967 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

STATEMENT REGARDING ELECTRONIC FILING OF A SEQUENCE LISTING

A Sequence Listing in ASCII text format, submitted under 37 C.F.R. §1.821, entitled 5470-477TSDVCT_ST25.txt, 641,815 bytes in size, generated on Dec. 18, 2014 and filed via EFS-Web, is provided in lieu of a paper copy. The Sequence Listing is incorporated herein by reference into the specification for its disclosures.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods for directed evolution and in vivo panning of adeno-associated virus vectors as well as optimized AAV capsids and virus vectors comprising the same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The muscular dystrophies (MD) are a heterogeneous group of inherited disorders characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles. The molecular basis of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) was first elucidated twenty years ago as a perturbation of dystrophin (Koenig et al., (1987) Cell 50: 509-517). Dystrophin associates with a number of proteins to form a large oligomeric complex named the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), which bridges across the sarcolemma and connects the extracellular matrix and the actin cytoskeleton (Allamand and Campbell, (2000) Human Molecular Genetics 9:2459-2467). Loss or abnormal function of the DGC components will lead to dystrophic muscles and various forms of MD. For instance, mutations in sarcoglycan (SG) genes are responsible for autosomal recessive limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMD 2C-2F; reviewed by Lim and Campbell, (1998) Neurology 11:443-452), and deficiency in the laminin α2 chain is responsible for about half of the cases of congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD; Helbling-Leclerc et al., (1995) Nature Genetics 11:216-218).

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) was first reported to efficiently transduce muscle over ten years ago (Xiao et al., (1996) J. Virology 70:8098-8108). As another advantage, AAV vectors have a good safety profile. The recombinant AAV (rAAV) genome composed of a foreign expression cassette and AAV inverted terminal repeat (ITR) sequences exists in eukaryotic cells in an episomal form that is responsible for persistent transgene expression (Schnepp et al., (2003) J. Virology 77:3495-3504). No human disease has been associated with wild-type AAV infection and low toxicity is observed in human subjects following muscle transduction by rAAV (Manno et al., (2003) Blood 101:2963-2972).

A series of new AAV serotypes have been identified from humans or primates that display variable capsid sequences as compared with AAV2 (Gao et al., (2002) Proc. Nat. Acad Sci. USA 99:11854-11859; Gao et al., (2004) J. Virology 78:6381-6388). Of these, AAV1, 6, 8, and 9 recombinant vectors have been reported to result in higher transgene expression level in muscle than rAAV2 vector (Wang et al., (2005) Nature Biotech. 23:321-328; Inagaki et al., (2006) Molecular Therapy 14:45-53). Widespread transduction of cardiac and skeletal muscle has been achieved in adult mouse by intravenous administration of rAAV6 vector supplemented with vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF) (Gregorevic et al., (2004) Nature Med. 10:828-834). rAAV1 vectors have a similar capsid sequence and were successfully applied in systemic gene delivery to vital muscles of DMD and CMD mouse models and efficiently ameliorated the dystrophic phenotype (Qiao et al., (2005) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 102:11999-12004; Denti et al., (2006) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:3758-3763). Whilst vector administration in these studies was conducted with pharmacological interventions or in neonatal animals, rAAV8 vectors appear more efficient at crossing the blood vessel barrier and transducing heart and skeletal muscle of adult mice and hamsters (Wang et al., (2005) Nature Biotech. 23:321-328; Zhu et al., (2005) Circulation 112:2650-2659). AAV9 vectors also demonstrate efficient tropism to the myocardium and serve as another alternative for systemic gene delivery to heart (Inagaki et al., (2006) Molecular Therapy 14:45-53; Pacak et al., (2006) Circulation Research 99:3-9).

In addition to the investigation of natural AAV serotypes, research efforts have explored modification of the AAV capsid to produce optimized vectors. Mutagenesis represented the initial approach to genetically modify the AAV2 capsid (Wu et al., (2000) J. Virology 74:8635-8647; Lochrie et al., (2006) J. Virology 80:821-834). Insertion of peptides from phage display libraries into the AAV capsid protein proved to be another strategy to modify the AAV capsid and retarget the vector to new cells or tissues. This method has been further developed to directly display synthesized peptides on the surface of the AAV capsid.

Besides rational design, directed evolution has been used to introduce modifications into AAV vectors. One group reported that the AAV2 capsid gene was diversified by random mutagenesis and then subject to in vitro recombination (Maheshri et al., (2006) Nature Biotech. 24:198-204). The modified capsid genes were employed for the production of an AAV library, which was screened in vitro for enhanced properties such as altered affinities for heparin or evasion of antibody neutralization. In vitro screening methods, however, are inherently limited in their ability to identify optimized mutants that will have desired properties in vivo in the context of a complex biological system. For example, the vasculature is a major barrier for systemic AAV delivery via the circulation to many tissues and cell types including skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle, the heart and brain. It would be desirable for an AAV vector to not only be efficient in crossing the endothelial lining to reach the intended target cells such as cardiomyocytes in the heart, myofibers in skeletal muscle and neurons in the brain, but also be robust in infecting those intended cells after reaching them. An in vitro panning system is simply unable to select for both of these properties. In addition, there are numerous examples in the literature in which in vitro assessment of viral properties such as tropism was not predictive of in vivo behavior.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides methods of achieving directed evolution of viruses by in vivo screening or “panning” to identify viruses comprising mosaic or “scrambled” AAV capsids having characteristics of interest, e.g., tropism profile and/or neutralization profile (e.g., ability to evade neutralizing antibodies). The invention also provides scrambled AAV capsids and virus particles comprising the same.

Thus, as one aspect, the invention provides a nucleic acid (e.g., an isolated nucleic acid) encoding an AAV capsid, the nucleic acid comprising an AAV capsid coding sequence selected from the group consisting of:

-   -   (a) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3E (M17) (SEQ ID NO:1);     -   (b) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3H (M22) (SEQ ID NO:3);     -   (c) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3K (M35) (SEQ ID NO:5);     -   (d) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3B (M41) (SEQ ID NO:7);     -   (e) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3N (M42) (SEQ ID NO:9);     -   (f) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Q (M62) (SEQ ID NO:11);     -   (g) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3T (M67) (SEQ ID NO:13);     -   (h) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3W (M125) (SEQ ID NO:15);     -   (i) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Z (M148) (SEQ ID NO:17);     -   (j) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3CC (M151) (SEQ ID NO:19);     -   (k) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3FF (H18) (SEQ ID NO:21);     -   (l) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3II (H34) (SEQ ID NO:23);     -   (m) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3LL (H39) (SEQ ID NO:25);     -   (n) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3OO (H40) (SEQ ID NO:27);     -   (o) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3RR (H43) (SEQ ID NO:29);     -   (p) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3UU (H50) (SEQ ID NO:31);     -   (q) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3XX (H53) (SEQ ID NO:33);     -   (r) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3AAA (H66) (SEQ ID NO:35);     -   (s) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3DDD (H109) (SEQ ID NO:37);     -   (t) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6A (HH1) (SEQ ID NO:39);     -   (u) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6C (HH15) (SEQ ID NO:41);     -   (vv) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6E (HH19) (SEQ ID NO:43);     -   (ww) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6G (HH27) (SEQ ID NO:45);     -   (xx) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6I (HH35) (SEQ ID NO:47);     -   (yy) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6K (HH41) (SEQ ID NO:49);     -   (zz) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6M (HH45) (SEQ ID NO:51);     -   (aaa) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6O (HH53) (SEQ ID NO:53);     -   (bbb) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Q (HH67) (SEQ ID NO:55);     -   (ccc) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6S (HH68) (SEQ ID NO:57);     -   (ddd) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6U (HH75) (SEQ ID NO:59);     -   (eee) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6W (HH87) (SEQ ID NO:61);     -   (fff) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Y (HH64) (SEQ ID NO:63);     -   (ggg) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6M (MH4) (SEQ ID NO:65);     -   (hhh) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CC (MH18) (SEQ ID NO:67);     -   (iii) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EE (MH21) (SEQ ID NO:69);     -   (jjj) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GG (MH31) (SEQ ID NO:71);     -   (kkk) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6II (MH39) (SEQ ID NO:73);     -   (lll) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KK (MHY43) (SEQ ID         NO:75);     -   (mmm) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MM (MH47) (SEQ ID NO:77);     -   (nnn) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OO (MH58) (SEQ ID NO:79);     -   (ooo) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQ (MH63) (SEQ ID NO:81);     -   (ppp) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SS (MH71) (SEQ ID NO:83);     -   (qqq) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UU (MH74) (SEQ ID NO:85);     -   (rrr) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WW (MH78) (SEQ ID NO:87);     -   (sss) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YY (MH82) (SEQ ID NO:89);     -   (ttt) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6AAA (MH90) (SEQ ID         NO:91);     -   (uuu) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCC (MH94) (SEQ ID         NO:93);     -   (vvv) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEE (MH95) (SEQ ID         NO:95);     -   (www) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGG (MH107) (SEQ ID         NO:97);     -   (xxx) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6III (MH113) (SEQ ID         NO:99);     -   (yyy) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKK (MM4) (SEQ ID         NO:101);     -   (zzz) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMM (MM7) (SEQ ID         NO:103);     -   (aaaa) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOO (MM19) (SEQ ID         NO:105);     -   (bbbb) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQ (MM35) (SEQ ID         NO:107);     -   (cccc) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSS (MM44) (SEQ ID         NO:109);     -   (dddd) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UUU (MM55) (SEQ ID         NO:111);     -   (eeee) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WWW (MM65) (SEQ ID         NO:113);     -   (ffff) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YYY (MM68) (SEQ ID         NO:115);     -   (gggg) the nucleotide sequence of 6AAAA (MM84) (SEQ ID NO:117);     -   (hhhh) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCCC (MM107) (SEQ ID         NO:119);     -   (iiii) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEEE (MM112) (SEQ ID         NO:121);     -   (jjjj) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGGG (MM115) (SEQ ID         NO:123);     -   (kkkk) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6IIII (MM120) (SEQ ID         NO:125);     -   (llll) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKKK (MM123) (SEQ ID         NO:127);     -   (mmmm) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMMM (MM136) (SEQ ID         NO:129);     -   (nnnn) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOOO (MM138) (SEQ ID         NO:131);     -   (oooo) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQQ (MM141) (SEQ ID         NO:133);     -   (pppp) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSSS (MM144) (SEQ ID         NO:135),     -   (qqqq) or the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UUUU (MM153) (SEQ ID         NO:137); and     -   (rrrr) a nucleotide sequence that encodes an AAV capsid encoded         by the nucleotide sequence of any of (a) to (qqqq) but that         differs from the nucleotide sequences of (a) to (qqqq) due to         the degeneracy of the genetic code.

As an additional aspect, the invention provides AAV capsids encoded by the nucleic acids of the invention.

The invention further provides viral particles comprising a virus genome (e.g., an AAV genome); and an AAV capsid of the invention, wherein the AAV capsid encapsidates the virus genome. In particular embodiments, the virus genome is a recombinant vector genome comprising a heterologous nucleic acid.

Still further, the invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a nucleic acid, AAV capsid or virus particle of the invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

As a further aspect, the invention provides a method of producing a recombinant virus particle comprising an AAV capsid (e.g., AAV particle), the method comprising:

providing a cell in vitro with a nucleic acid of the present invention, an AAV rep coding sequence, a recombinant vector genome (e.g., a rAAV genome) comprising a heterologous nucleic acid, and helper functions for generating a productive infection; and

allowing assembly of the recombinant virus particle comprising the AAV capsid and encapsidating the recombinant vector genome.

The invention further provides methods of delivering a nucleic acid of interest to a cell, the method comprising administering a nucleic acid, virus particle or AAV capsid of the invention to the cell.

As still another aspect, the invention provides a method of delivering a nucleic acid of interest to a mammalian subject, the method comprising:

administering an effective amount of a virus particle, nucleic acid, pharmaceutical formulation or AAV capsid of the invention to a mammalian subject.

As yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of treating muscular dystrophy in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising:

administering an effective amount of a virus particle (e.g., an AAV particle) or a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a virus particle of the invention to the mammalian subject, wherein the virus particle comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding dystrophin, a mini-dystrophin, a micro-dystrophin, a laminin-α2, a mini-agrin, an α-sarcoglycan, a β-sarcoglycan, a γ-sarcoglycan, a δ-sarcoglycan, utrophin, Fukutin-related protein, myostatin pro-peptide, follistatin, dominant negative myostatin, an angiogenic factor and/or an anti-apoptotic factor.

Still further, the invention provides a method of treating congenital heart failure in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising:

administering an effective amount of a virus particle (e.g., an AAV particle) or pharmaceutical formulation comprising a virus particle of the invention to the mammalian subject, wherein the AAV particle comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a sarcoplasmic endoreticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA2a), a β-adrenergic receptor kinase inhibitor (βARKct), inhibitor 1 of protein phosphatase 1, an anti-apoptotic factor and/or an angiogenic factor.

The invention also encompasses a method of identifying a virus vector (e.g., an AAV vector) or AAV capsid having a tropism profile of interest, the method comprising:

(a) providing a collection of virus vectors (e.g., AAV vectors), wherein each virus vector within the collection comprises:

-   -   (i) an AAV capsid comprising capsid proteins generated by         shuffling the capsid coding sequences of two or more different         AAV, wherein the capsid amino acid sequences of the two or more         different AAV differ by at least two amino acids; and     -   (ii) a virus vector genome (e.g., an AAV vector genome)         comprising:         -   a cap coding sequence encoding the AAV capsid of (i);         -   an AAV rep coding sequence; and         -   at least one terminal repeat that functions with the Rep             protein(s) encoded by the AAV rep coding sequence (e.g., 5′             and/or 3′ terminal repeats such as 5′ and/or 3′ AAV terminal             repeats);     -   wherein the AAV capsid encapsidates the virus vector genome;

(b) administering the collection of virus vectors to a mammalian subject; and

(c) recovering a plurality of virus vectors as virions or as viral genomes encoding the AAV capsid from a target tissue, thereby identifying a virus vector or AAV capsid having a tropism of interest.

These and other aspects of the invention are set forth in more detail in the description of the invention below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows Taqα I digested capsid genes of random clones from the plasmid library. The progeny capsid gene clones and parental capsid gene clones are indicated. Numbers 1-9 show capsid genotypes of the corresponding AAV serotypes. “M” is the 100 base pair DNA size ladder. “R” designates recombinant.

FIG. 2 shows the frequencies of AAV clones retrieved from skeletal muscle and liver after two rounds of in vivo panning. Forty three unique AAV mutants were identified from muscle after the first round of screening by their unique capsid sequences. Those infectious plasmids were then mixed for production of a virus library for the second round of biopanning in skeletal muscle after i.v. injection. Only those mutants appearing more than once in the muscle are shown. Among the 79 randomly retrieved mutants, 19 capsid sequences were found unique.

FIGS. 3A-3EEE depict the structure and sequence of the mosaic capsid genes. The deduced M41 capsid amino acid (AA) sequence was aligned with that of the eight parental AAV serotypes to determine their phylogenetic relationship (FIG. 3A). Different fill patterns of the sequence segments represent the AAV serotype of origin (i.e., 1, 6, 7 and 8). One residue replacement distinct from any known AAV capsid (tyrosine 418) is indicated with a triangle. AA residue numbers begin from the start of the capsid open reading frame. FIG. 3B and FIG. 3C respectively depict the nucleotide and amino acid sequence of the M41 capsid gene. FIGS. 3D-3DD depict the structure, nucleotide and amino acid sequence of mosaic capsid genes from vectors with skeletal muscle tropism, whereas FIGS. 3EE-3EEE depict the structure, nucleotide and amino acid sequence of mosaic capsid genes from vectors with heart tropism.

FIGS. 4A-4F show luciferase activities and vector genome copy numbers in various mouse tissues after systemic administration of AAV vectors. Comparison of AAV9- and AAVM41-CMV-Luc vectors in luciferase activities (FIG. 4A), and AAV vector genome copy numbers (FIG. 4B), at 2-weeks after intravenous injection of 3×10¹¹ vector genomes in mice. Similar comparison of AAV6- or M41-CMV-Luc vectors in luciferase activities (FIG. 4C), and AAV genome copy numbers (FIG. 4D). Data are mean values±s.d. Ab, abdomen muscle; Di, diaphragm; Ta, tibialis anterior; Ga, gastrocnemius; Qd, quadriceps; Fl, forelimb; Ma, masseter; Ht, heart; Lv, liver; Sp, spleen; Kd, kidney; Lu, lung; Pa, pancreas; Te, testis; Br, brain; Tg, tongue. Heart vs. liver ratio in transduction efficiency by three rAAV vectors on luciferase activities (FIG. 4E), and vector genome copy numbers (FIG. 4F).

FIGS. 5A and 5B show the results of systemic delivery of LacZ transgene by AAVM41 into striated muscles. (FIG. 5A) X-gal staining of cross-sections of hearts after systemic administration of AAV vectors. 3×10¹¹ vector genomes of AAV9- or M41-CB-LacZ were injected via tail vein into adult mice; and 1×10¹² vector genomes of AAV9- or M41-CMV-LacZ were injected via jugular vein into adult hamsters. Hearts from mice or hamsters were collected at 2-weeks or 3-weeks post injection for X-gal and eosin staining. Two magnifications (4× and 40×) were used for photography. (FIG. 5B) LacZ transgene expression in the tibialis anterior muscles of the same animals as described in (A). Scale bars represented 200 μm (4×) and 50 μm (40×) in (A) and 100 μm in (B).

FIGS. 6A-6VVVV depict the nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of mosaic AAV capsids following reshuffling, generation of secondary libraries, and screening in vivo in heart and skeletal muscle tissue. The AAV capsid clones identified in Example 2 by screening heart tissue were reshuffled to generate a secondary heart library. Similarly, a secondary skeletal muscle library was generated from the capsid mutants identified in Example 4 in skeletal muscle. The secondary heart library was subjected to three successive screenings to identify those AAV capsid clones targeting heart (“HH” designation; FIGS. 6H to 6Z). The secondary skeletal muscle library was used for parallel screening for capsid clones targeting heart (designated “MH”; FIGS. 6AA to 6JJJ) and skeletal muscle (designated “MM”; FIGS. 6KKK to 6VVVV).

FIGS. 7A-7D show a comparison of gene transfer efficiency in primary cardiomyocytes or skeletal muscles. (FIG. 7A) Representative X-gal staining of cardiomyocytes or skeletal muscle after transduction by AAV9-, AAVM41- or AAV6-CMV-LacZ vectors. The AAV vectors were inoculated on the primary neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (5×10⁵ cells/well) at an infection multiplicity of 3000. Cells were fixed for X-gal staining 96 hrs later (Top panels). The AAV vectors (5×10⁹ v.g.) were also injected into the gastrocnemius muscle of adult C57BJ/6L mice and tissues were sectioned and stained with X-gal and eosin 14 days post-treatment (bottom panels). Scale bars represent 100 μm. (FIGS. 7B, 7C) Quantitative β-gal activities and AAV vector genome copies in primary cardiomyocytes; and (FIG. 7D) β-gal activities in mouse skeletal muscles. Data are shown as mean values±s.d.

FIGS. 8A and 8B depict the results of studies of systemic delivery of δ-sarcoglycan into cardiomyopathic hamster for treatment of heart failure. 1×10¹² vector genomes of M41-Syn-δSG vector were injected into 7-week-old male TO-2 hamsters via the jugular vein (n=5). (FIG. 8A) Immunofluorescent staining of δ-sarcoglycan on thin sections of heart and skeletal muscle tissues 4 months after vector administration. Two magnifications were used for clear view and the scale bars represent 50 μm. (FIG. 8B) Western analysis of δ-sarcoglycan in muscle and non-muscle tissues from untreated TO-2 (−) and rM41 vector-treated TO-2 (+) hamsters. 20 μg of total proteins were loaded in each lane.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based, in part, on the inventors' discovery that directed evolution and in vivo panning can be used to identify scrambled AAV capsids and viruses comprising the same having desired characteristics such as tropism profile and/or neutralization profile (e.g., ability to evade neutralizing antibodies) by scrambling AAV capsid sequences from two or more different AAV capsids and then screening directly in vivo. In general, the methods of the invention are carried out to identify novel AAV capsids comprising modifications in the nucleic acid coding sequence(s) and/or amino acid sequence(s) for one, two or all three of the AAV capsid protein(s). The methods of the invention based on in vivo screening address short-comings of prior cell culture based systems which are unable to simultaneously mimic in vivo conditions (e.g., the tight endothelial liming, differentiated skeletal muscle cells, the effects of the liver on vector biodistribution, etc.).

As one illustrative example, the inventors have practiced the methods of the invention to identify in vivo AAV capsid mutants having a desired tropism profile such as inefficient tropism for liver and/or efficient tropism for skeletal muscle (e.g., tongue muscle), diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle.

The present invention is explained in greater detail below. This description is not intended to be a detailed catalog of all the different ways in which the invention may be implemented, or all the features that may be added to the instant invention. For example, features illustrated with respect to one embodiment may be incorporated into other embodiments, and features illustrated with respect to a particular embodiment may be deleted from that embodiment. In addition, numerous variations and additions to the various embodiments suggested herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the instant disclosure which do not depart from the instant invention. Hence, the following specification is intended to illustrate some particular embodiments of the invention, and not to exhaustively specify all permutations, combinations and variations thereof.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention.

Except as otherwise indicated, standard methods known to those skilled in the art may be used for production of recombinant and synthetic polypeptides, antibodies or antigen-binding fragments thereof, manipulation of nucleic acid sequences, production of transformed cells, the construction of rAAV constructs, modified capsid proteins, packaging vectors expressing the AAV rep and/or cap sequences, and transiently and stably transfected packaging cells. Such techniques are known to those skilled in the art. See, e.g., SAMBROOK et al., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL 2nd Ed. (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989); F. M. AUSUBEL et al. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (Green Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York).

All publications, patent applications, patents, nucleotide sequences, amino acid sequences and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

I. Definitions.

The designation of all amino acid positions in the AAV capsid subunits in the description of the invention and the appended claims is with respect to VP1 capsid subunit numbering.

As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

As used herein, “and/or” refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items, as well as the lack of combinations when interpreted in the alternative (“or”).

Moreover, the present invention also contemplates that in some embodiments of the invention, any feature or combination of features set forth herein can be excluded or omitted.

Furthermore, the term “about,” as used herein when referring to a measurable value such as an amount of a compound or agent of this invention, dose, time, temperature, and the like, is meant to encompass variations of ±20%, ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, ±0.5%, or even ±0.1% of the specified amount.

The term “consisting essentially of” as used herein in connection with a nucleic acid, protein or capsid structure means that the nucleic acid, protein or capsid structure does not contain any element other than the recited element(s) that significantly alters (e.g., more than about 1%, 5% or 10%) the function of interest of the nucleic acid, protein or capsid structure, e.g., tropism profile or neutralization profile of the protein or capsid or a protein or capsid encoded by the nucleic acid.

The term “adeno-associated virus” (AAV) in the context of the present invention includes without limitation AAV type 1, AAV type 2, AAV type 3 (including types 3A and 3B), AAV type 4, AAV type 5, AAV type 6, AAV type 7, AAV type 8, AAV type 9, AAV type 10, AAV type 11, avian AAV, bovine AAV, canine AAV, equine AAV, and ovine AAV and any other AAV now known or later discovered. See, e.g., BERNARD N. FIELDS et al., VIROLOGY, volume 2, chapter 69 (4th ed., Lippincott-Raven Publishers). A number of additional AAV serotypes and clades have been identified (see, e.g., Gao et al., (2004) J. Virology 78:6381-6388 and Table 1), which are also encompassed by the term “AAV.”

TABLE 1 GenBank Complete Genomes Accession Number Adeno-associated virus 1 NC_002077, AF063497 Adeno-associated virus 2 NC_001401 Adeno-associated virus 3 NC_001729 Adeno-associated virus 3B NC_001863 Adeno-associated virus 4 NC_001829 Adeno-associated virus 5 Y18065, AF085716 Adeno-associated virus 6 NC_001862 Avian AAV ATCC VR-865 AY186198, AY629583, NC_004828 Avian AAV strain DA-1 NC_006263, AY629583 Bovine AAV NC_005889, AY388617 Clade A AAV1 NC_002077, AF063497 AAV6 NC_001862 Hu.48 AY530611 Hu 43 AY530606 Hu 44 AY530607 Hu 46 AY530609 Clade B Hu. 19 AY530584 Hu. 20 AY530586 Hu 23 AY530589 Hu22 AY530588 Hu24 AY530590 Hu21 AY530587 Hu27 AY530592 Hu28 AY530593 Hu 29 AY530594 Hu63 AY530624 Hu64 AY530625 Hu13 AY530578 Hu56 AY530618 Hu57 AY530619 Hu49 AY530612 Hu58 AY530620 Hu34 AY530598 Hu35 AY530599 AAV2 NC_001401 Hu45 AY530608 Hu47 AY530610 Hu51 AY530613 Hu52 AY530614 Hu T41 AY695378 Hu S17 AY695376 Hu T88 AY695375 Hu T71 AY695374 Hu T70 AY695373 Hu T40 AY695372 Hu T32 AY695371 Hu T17 AY695370 Hu LG15 AY695377 Clade C Hu9 AY530629 Hu10 AY530576 Hu11 AY530577 Hu53 AY530615 Hu55 AY530617 Hu54 AY530616 Hu7 AY530628 Hu18 AY530583 Hu15 AY530580 Hu16 AY530581 Hu25 AY530591 Hu60 AY530622 Ch5 AY243021 Hu3 AY530595 Hu1 AY530575 Hu4 AY530602 Hu2 AY530585 Hu61 AY530623 Clade D Rh62 AY530573 Rh48 AY530561 Rh54 AY530567 Rh55 AY530568 Cy2 AY243020 AAV7 AF513851 Rh35 AY243000 Rh37 AY242998 Rh36 AY242999 Cy6 AY243016 Cy4 AY243018 Cy3 AY243019 Cy5 AY243017 Rh13 AY243013 Clade E Rh38 AY530558 Hu66 AY530626 Hu42 AY530605 Hu67 AY530627 Hu40 AY530603 Hu41 AY530604 Hu37 AY530600 Rh40 AY530559 Rh2 AY243007 Bb1 AY243023 Bb2 AY243022 Rh10 AY243015 Hu17 AY530582 Hu6 AY530621 Rh25 AY530557 Pi2 AY530554 Pi1 AY530553 Pi3 AY530555 Rh57 AY530569 Rh50 AY530563 Rh49 AY530562 Hu39 AY530601 Rh58 AY530570 Rh61 AY530572 Rh52 AY530565 Rh53 AY530566 Rh51 AY530564 Rh64 AY530574 Rh43 AY530560 AAV8 AF513852 Rh8 AY242997 Rh1 AY530556 Clade F Hu14 (AAV9) AY530579 Hu31 AY530596 Hu32 AY530597 Clonal Isolate AAV5 Y18065, AF085716 AAV 3 NC_001729 AAV 3B NC_001863 AAV4 NC_001829 Rh34 AY243001 Rh33 AY243002 Rh32 AY243003

The genomic sequences of various AAV and autonomous parvoviruses, as well as the sequences of the ITRs, Rep proteins, and capsid subunits are known in the art. Such sequences may be found in the literature or in public databases such as the GenBank® database. See, e.g., GenBank® Accession Numbers NC 002077, NC 001401, NC 001729, NC 001863, NC 001829, NC 001862, NC 000883, NC 001701, NC 001510, AF063497, U89790, AF043303, AF028705, AF028704, J02275, J01901, J02275, X01457, AF288061, AH009962, AY028226, AY028223, NC 001358, NC 001540, AF513851, AF513852, AY530579, AY631965, AY631966; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. See also, e.g., Srivistava et al., (1983) J. Virology 45:555; Chiorini et al., (1998) J. Virology 71:6823; Chiorini et al., (1999) J. Virology 73:1309; Bantel-Schaal et al., (1999) J. Virology 73:939; Xiao et al., (1999) J. Virology 73:3994; Muramatsu et al., (1996) Virology 221:208; Shade et al., (1986) J. Virol. 58:921; Gao et al., (2002) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 99:11854; international patent publications WO 00/28061, WO 99/61601, WO 98/11244; U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. See also Table 1. An early description of the AAV1, AAV2 and AAV3 terminal repeat sequences is provided by Xiao, X., (1996), “Characterization of Adeno-associated virus (AAV) DNA replication and integration,” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. (incorporated herein it its entirety).

A “mosaic” or “scrambled” AAV nucleic acid capsid coding sequence or AAV capsid protein is the result of scrambling or shuffling two or more different AAV capsid sequences to produce capsid nucleic acid sequences and amino acid sequences (i.e., AAV capsid proteins) that combine portions of two or more capsid sequences. A “mosaic” or “scrambled” AAV virion or particle comprises a scrambled AAV capsid protein.

The term “tropism” as used herein refers to preferential entry of the virus into certain cell or tissue type(s) and/or preferential interaction with the cell surface that facilitates entry into certain cell or tissue types, optionally and preferably followed by expression (e.g., transcription and, optionally, translation) of sequences carried by the viral genome in the cell, e.g., for a recombinant virus, expression of the heterologous nucleotide sequence(s). Those skilled in the art will appreciate that transcription of a heterologous nucleic acid sequence from the viral genome may not be initiated in the absence of trans-acting factors, e.g., for an inducible promoter or otherwise regulated nucleic acid sequence. In the case of a rAAV genome, gene expression from the viral genome may be from a stably integrated provirus and/or from a non-integrated episome, as well as any other form in which the virus nucleic acid may take within the cell.

The term “tropism profile” refers to the pattern of transduction of one or more target cells, tissues and/or organs. For example, some scrambled AAV capsids may display efficient transduction of skeletal muscle (e.g., tongue muscle), diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle tissue. Conversely, some scrambled AAV capsids have only low level transduction of liver, gonads and/or germ cells. Representative examples of mosaic or scrambled AAV capsids have a tropism profile characterized by efficient transduction of skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle with only low transduction of liver.

As used herein, “transduction” of a cell by a virus vector (e.g., an AAV vector) means entry of the vector into the cell and transfer of genetic material into the cell by the incorporation of nucleic acid into the virus vector and subsequent transfer into the cell via the virus vector.

As used herein, a “collection” or “plurality” of virus particles, vectors, capsids or capsid proteins means two or more unless the context indicates otherwise.

Unless indicated otherwise, “efficient transduction” or “efficient tropism,” or similar terms, can be determined by reference to a suitable control (e.g., at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or more of the transduction or tropism, respectively, of the control). In particular embodiments, the virus vector efficiently transduces or has efficient tropism for skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, diaphragm muscle, pancreas (including β-islet cells), spleen, the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., epithelium and/or smooth muscle), lung, joint cells, and/or kidney. Suitable controls will depend on a variety of factors including the desired tropism profile. For example, AAV8 and AAV9 are highly efficient in transducing skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and diaphragm muscle, but have the disadvantage of also transducing liver with high efficiency. Thus, the invention can be practiced to identify scrambled AAV that demonstrate the efficient transduction of skeletal, cardiac and/or diaphragm muscle of AAV8 or AAV9, but with a much lower transduction efficiency for liver. Further, because the tropism profile of interest may reflect tropism toward multiple target tissues, it will be appreciated that a suitable scrambled AAV may represent some tradeoffs. To illustrate, a scrambled AAV of the invention may be less efficient than AAV8 or AAV9 in transducing skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and/or diaphragm muscle, but because of low level transduction of liver, may nonetheless be very desirable.

Similarly, it can be determined if a virus “does not efficiently transduce” or “does not have efficient tropism” for a target tissue, or similar terms, by reference to a suitable control. In particular embodiments, the virus vector does not efficiently transduce (i.e., has does not have efficient tropism) for liver, kidney, gonads and/or germ cells. In particular embodiments, undesirable transduction of tissue(s) (e.g., liver) is 20% or less, 10% or less, 5% or less, 1% or less, 0.1% or less of the level of transduction of the desired target tissue(s) (e.g., skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle).

As used herein, the term “polypeptide” encompasses both peptides and proteins, unless indicated otherwise.

A “nucleic acid” or “nucleotide sequence” is a sequence of nucleotide bases, and may be RNA, DNA or DNA-RNA hybrid sequences (including both naturally occurring and non-naturally occurring nucleotide), but is preferably either single or double stranded DNA sequences.

As used herein, an “isolated” nucleic acid or nucleotide sequence (e.g., an “isolated DNA” or an “isolated RNA”) means a nucleic acid or nucleotide sequence separated or substantially free from at least some of the other components of the naturally occurring organism or virus, for example, the cell or viral structural components or other polypeptides or nucleic acids commonly found associated with the nucleic acid or nucleotide sequence.

Likewise, an “isolated” polypeptide means a polypeptide that is separated or substantially free from at least some of the other components of the naturally occurring organism or virus, for example, the cell or viral structural components or other polypeptides or nucleic acids commonly found associated with the polypeptide.

By the term “treat,” “treating” or “treatment of” (or grammatically equivalent terms) it is meant that the severity of the subject's condition is reduced or at least partially improved or ameliorated and/or that some alleviation, mitigation or decrease in at least one clinical symptom is achieved and/or there is a delay in the progression of the condition and/or prevention or delay of the onset of a disease or disorder. The term “treat,” “treats,” “treating,” or “treatment of” and the like also include prophylactic treatment of the subject (e.g., to prevent the onset of infection or cancer or a disorder). As used herein, the term “prevent,” “prevents,” or “prevention” (and grammatical equivalents thereof) are not meant to imply complete abolition of disease and encompasses any type of prophylactic treatment that reduces the incidence of the condition, delays the onset and/or progression of the condition, and/or reduces the symptoms associated with the condition. Thus, unless the context indicates otherwise, the term “treat,” “treating” or “treatment of” (or grammatically equivalent terms) refer to both prophylactic and therapeutic regimens.

An “effective” amount as used herein is an amount that is sufficient to provide some improvement or benefit to the subject. Alternatively stated, an “effective” amount is an amount that will provide some alleviation, mitigation, or decrease in at least one clinical symptom in the subject. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the therapeutic effects need not be complete or curative, as long as some benefit is provided to the subject.

A “heterologous nucleotide sequence” or “heterologous nucleic acid” is typically a sequence that is not naturally occurring in the virus. Generally, the heterologous nucleic acid or nucleotide sequence comprises an open reading frame that encodes a polypeptide and/or a nontranslated RNA.

A “therapeutic polypeptide” can be a polypeptide that can alleviate or reduce symptoms that result from an absence or defect in a protein in a cell or subject. In addition, a “therapeutic polypeptide” can be a polypeptide that otherwise confers a benefit to a subject, e.g., anti-cancer effects or improvement in transplant survivability.

As used herein, the term “vector,” “virus vector,” “delivery vector” (and similar terms) generally refers to a virus particle that functions as a nucleic acid delivery vehicle, and which comprises the viral nucleic acid (i.e., the vector genome) packaged within the virion. Virus vectors according to the present invention comprise a scrambled AAV capsid according to the invention and can package an AAV or rAAV genome or any other nucleic acid including viral nucleic acids. Alternatively, in some contexts, the term “vector,” “virus vector,” “delivery vector” (and similar terms) may be used to refer to the vector genome (e.g., vDNA) in the absence of the virion and/or to a viral capsid that acts as a transporter to deliver molecules tethered to the capsid or packaged within the capsid.

A “recombinant AAV vector genome” or “rAAV genome” is an AAV genome (i.e., vDNA) that comprises at least one inverted terminal repeat (e.g., one, two or three inverted terminal repeats) and one or more heterologous nucleotide sequences. rAAV vectors generally retain the 145 base terminal repeat(s) (TR(s)) in cis to generate virus; however, modified AAV TRs and non-AAV TRs including partially or completely synthetic sequences can also serve this purpose. All other viral sequences are dispensable and may be supplied in trans (Muzyczka, (1992) Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 158:97). The rAAV vector optionally comprises two TRs (e.g., AAV TRs), which generally will be at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the heterologous nucleotide sequence(s), but need not be contiguous thereto. The TRs can be the same or different from each other. The vector genome can also contain a single ITR at its 3′ or 5′ end.

The term “terminal repeat” or “TR” includes any viral terminal repeat or synthetic sequence that forms a hairpin structure and functions as an inverted terminal repeat (i.e., mediates the desired functions such as replication, virus packaging, integration and/or provirus rescue, and the like). The TR can be an AAV TR or a non-AAV TR. For example, a non-AAV TR sequence such as those of other parvoviruses (e.g., canine parvovirus (CPV), mouse parvovirus (MVM), human parvovirus B-19) or the SV40 hairpin that serves as the origin of SV40 replication can be used as a TR, which can further be modified by truncation, substitution, deletion, insertion and/or addition. Further, the TR can be partially or completely synthetic, such as the “double-D sequence” as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,478,745 to Samulski et al.

An “AAV terminal repeat” or “AAV TR” may be from any AAV, including but not limited to serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or 11 or any other AAV now known or later discovered (see, e.g., Table 1). An AAV terminal repeat need not have the native terminal repeat sequence (e.g., a native AAV TR sequence may be altered by insertion, deletion, truncation and/or missense mutations), as long as the terminal repeat mediates the desired functions, e.g., replication, virus packaging, integration, and/or provirus rescue, and the like.

The terms “rAAV particle” and “rAAV virion” are used interchangeably here. A “rAAV particle” or “rAAV virion” comprises a rAAV vector genome packaged within an AAV capsid.

The AAV capsid structure is described in more detail in BERNARD N. FIELDS et al., VIROLOGY, volume 2, chapters 69 & 70 (4th ed., Lippincott-Raven Publishers).

By “substantially retain” a property, it is meant that at least about 75%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% of the property (e.g., activity or other measurable characteristic) is retained.

II. Scrambled AAV Capsids Identified by Directed Evolution and In Vivo Panning.

The inventors have identified “scrambled” or “mosaic” AAV capsid structures having characteristics of interest, e.g., tropism profile and/or neutralization profile. In particular embodiments, the scrambled capsid demonstrates inefficient transduction of liver and/or efficient transduction of skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle.

Thus, in some embodiments, the invention provides scrambled AAV capsids comprising, consisting of or consisting essentially of AAV capsid proteins having the amino acid sequences shown in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3W, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6W, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV and viruses comprising the scrambled AAV capsids. These figures show the VP1 capsid protein sequences. Those skilled in the art will understand that the AAV capsid generally contains the smaller VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins as well. Due to the overlap of the coding sequences for the AAV capsid proteins, the nucleic acid coding sequences and amino acid sequences of the VP2 and VP3 capsid proteins will be apparent from the VP1 sequences shown in FIGS. 3A-3EEE and 6A-6VVVV.

In particular embodiments, the scrambled capsid protein can comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3C (M41); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3F (M17); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3I (M22); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3L (M35); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3O (M42); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3R (M62); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3U (M67); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3X (M125); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3AA (M148); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3DD (M151); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3GG (H18); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3JJ (H34); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3MM (H39); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3PP (H40); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3SS (H43); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3VV (H50); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3YY (H53); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3BBB (H66); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 3EEE (H109); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6B (HH1); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6D (HH15); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6F (HH19); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6H (HH27); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6J (HH35); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6L (HH41); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6N (HH45); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6P (HH53); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6R (HH67); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6T (HH68); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6V (HH75); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6X (HH87); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6Z (HH64); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6BB (MH4); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6DD (MH18); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6FF (MH21); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6HH (MH31); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6JJ (MH39); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6LL (MHY43); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6NN (MH47); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6PP (MH58); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6RR (MH63); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6TT (MH71); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6VV (MH74); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6XX (MH78); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6ZZ (MH82); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6BBB (MH90); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6DDD (MH94); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6FFF (MH95); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6HHH (MH107); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6JJJ (MH113); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6LLL (MM4); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6NNN (MM7); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6PPP (MM19); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6RRR (MM35); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6TTT (MM44); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6VVV (MM55); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6XXX (MM65); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6ZZZ (MM68); the amino acid sequence of 6BBBB (MM84); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6DDDD (MM107); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6FFFF (MM112); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6HHHH (MM115); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6JJJJ (MM120); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6LLLL (MM123); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6NNNN (MM136); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6PPPP (MM138); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6RRRR (MM141); the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6TTTT (MM144), or the amino acid sequence of FIG. 6VVVV (MM153).

Further, in non-limiting embodiments, the scrambled AAV capsids and capsid proteins of the invention can be encoded by a nucleic acid comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3E (M17); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3H (M22); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3K (M35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3B (M41); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3N (M42); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Q (M62); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3T (M67); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3W (M125); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Z (M148); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3CC (M151); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3FF (H18); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3II (H34); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3LL (H39); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3OO (H40); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3RR (H43); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3UU (H50); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3XX (H53); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3AAA (H66); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3DDD (H109); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6A (HH1); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6C (HH15); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6E (HH19); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6G (HH27); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6I (HH35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6K (HH41); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6M (HH45); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6O (HH53); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Q (HH67); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6S (HH68); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6U (HH75); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6W (HH87); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Y (HH64); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6AA (MH4); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CC (MH18); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EE (MH21); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GG (MH31); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6II (MH39); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KK (MHY43); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MM (MH47); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OO (MH58); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQ (MH63); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SS (MH71); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UU (MH74); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WW (MH78); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YY (MH82); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6AAA (MH90); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCC (MH94); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEE (MH95); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGG (MH107); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6III (MH113); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKK (MM4); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMM (MM7); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOO (MM19); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQ (MM35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSS (MM44); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOO (MM55); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WWW (MM65); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YYY (MM68); the nucleotide sequence of 6AAAA (MM84); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCCC (MM107); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEEE (MM112); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGGG (MM115); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6IIII (MM120); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKKK (MM123); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMMM (MM136); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOOO (MM138); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQQ (MM141); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSSS (MM144), or the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UUUU (MM153); or a nucleotide sequence that encodes an AAV capsid or capsid protein encoded by the nucleotide sequence of any of the foregoing but that differs from the nucleotide sequences of the foregoing due to the degeneracy of the genetic code. The designation of all amino acid positions in the description of the invention and the appended claims is with respect to VP1 numbering. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that due to the overlap in the AAV capsid coding sequences the modifications described herein can also result in modifications in the VP2 and/or VP3 capsid subunits.

The invention also provides scrambled AAV capsid proteins and scrambled capsids comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of the same, wherein the capsid protein comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of an amino acid sequence as shown in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6W, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV (and described above), wherein 1, 2 or fewer, 3 or fewer, 4 or fewer, 5 or fewer, 6 or fewer, 7 or fewer, 8 or fewer, 9 or fewer, 10 or fewer, 12 or fewer, 15 or fewer, 20 or fewer, 25 or fewer, 30 or fewer, 40 or fewer, or 50 or fewer of the amino acids within the capsid protein coding sequence shown in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6VV, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV are substituted by another amino acid (naturally occurring, modified and/or synthetic), optionally a conservative amino acid substitution, and/or are deleted and/or there are insertions (including N-terminal and C-terminal extensions) of 1, 2 or fewer, 3 or fewer, 4 or fewer, 5 or fewer, 6 or fewer, 7 or fewer, 8 or fewer, 9 or fewer, 10 or fewer, 12 or fewer, 15 or fewer, 20 or fewer, 25 or fewer, 30 or fewer, 40 or fewer, or 50 or fewer amino acids or any combination of substitutions, deletions and/or insertions, wherein the substitutions, deletions and/or insertions do not unduly impair the structure and/or function of a virion (e.g., an AAV virion) comprising the variant capsid protein or capsid. For example, in representative embodiments of the invention, an AAV virion comprising the variant capsid protein substantially retains at least one property of a scrambled virion comprising a scrambled capsid protein as shown in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6VV, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV. For example, the virion comprising the variant capsid protein can substantially retain the tropism profile of a virion comprising the scrambled AAV capsid protein as shown in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6W, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV (e.g., low efficiency transduction of liver and/or efficient transduction of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or tongue muscle). Methods of evaluating biological properties such as virus transduction and/or neutralization by antibodies are well-known in the art (see, e.g., the Examples).

Conservative amino acid substitutions are known in the art. In particular embodiments, a conservative amino acid substitution includes substitutions within one or more of the following groups: glycine, alanine; valine, isoleucine, leucine; aspartic acid, glutamic acid; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine; lysine, arginine; and/or phenylalanine, tyrosine.

It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the amino acid sequences of the scrambled AAV capsid proteins in FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3AA, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6W, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV can further be modified to incorporate other modifications as known in the art to impart desired properties, for example, R484E and R585E mutations to the AAV2 capsid sequence have been described that resulted in improved cardiac transduction by AAV vector (Muller et al., (2006) Cardiovascular Research 70:70-78). As further nonlimiting possibilities, the capsid protein can be modified to incorporate targeting sequences (e.g., RGD) or sequences that facilitate purification and/or detection. For example, the capsid protein can be fused to all or a portion of glutathione-S-transferase, maltose-binding protein, a heparin/heparan sulfate binding domain, poly-His, a ligand, and/or a reporter protein (e.g., Green Fluorescent Protein, β-glucuronidase, β-galactosidase, luciferase, etc.), an immunoglobulin Fc fragment, a single-chain antibody, hemagglutinin, c-myc, FLAG epitope, and the like to form a fusion protein. Methods of inserting targeting peptides into the AAV capsid are known in the art (see, e.g., international patent publication WO 00/28004; Nicklin et al., (2001) Molecular Therapy 474-181; White et al., (2004) Circulation 109:513-319; Muller et al., (2003) Nature Biotech. 21:1040-1046.

The viruses of the invention can further comprise a duplexed viral genome as described in international patent publication WO 01/92551 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,465,583.

The invention also provides AAV capsids comprising the scrambled AAV capsid proteins of the invention and virus particles (i.e., virions) comprising the same, wherein the virus particle packages (i.e., encapsidates) a vector genome, optionally an AAV vector genome. In particular embodiments, the invention provides an AAV particle comprising an AAV capsid comprising an AAV capsid protein of the invention, wherein the AAV capsid packages an AAV vector genome. The invention also provides an AAV particle comprising an AAV capsid or AAV capsid protein encoded by the scrambled nucleic acid capsid coding sequences of the invention.

In particular embodiments, the virion is a recombinant vector comprising a heterologous nucleic acid of interest, e.g., for delivery to a cell. Thus, the present invention is useful for the delivery of nucleic acids to cells in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo. In representative embodiments, the recombinant vector of the invention can be advantageously employed to deliver or transfer nucleic acids to animal (e.g., mammalian) cells.

Any heterologous nucleotide sequence(s) may be delivered by a virus vector of the present invention. Nucleic acids of interest include nucleic acids encoding polypeptides, optionally therapeutic (e.g., for medical or veterinary uses) and/or immunogenic (e.g., for vaccines) polypeptides.

Therapeutic polypeptides include, but are not limited to, cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein (CFTR), dystrophin (including the protein product of dystrophin mini-genes or micro-genes, see, e.g, Vincent et al., (1993) Nature Genetics 5:130; U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003017131; Wang et al., (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 97:13714-9 [mini-dystrophin]; Harper et al., (2002) Nat Med. 8:253-61 [micro-dystrophin]); mini-agrin, a laminin-α2, a sarcoglycan (α, β, γ or δ), Fukutin-related protein, myostatin pro-peptide, follistatin, dominant negative myostatin, an angiogenic factor (e.g., VEGF, angiopoietin-1 or 2), an anti-apoptotic factor (e.g., heme-oxygenase-1, TGF-β, inhibitors of pro-apoptotic signals such as caspases, proteases, kinases, death receptors [e.g., CD-095], modulators of cytochrome C release, inhibitors of mitochondrial pore opening and swelling); activin type II soluble receptor, anti-inflammatory polypeptides such as the Ikappa B dominant mutant, sarcospan, utrophin, mini-utrophin, antibodies or antibody fragments against myostatin or myostatin propeptide, cell cycle modulators, Rho kinase modulators such as Cethrin, which is a modified bacterial C3 exoenzyme [available from BioAxone Therapeutics, Inc., Saint-Lauren, Quebec, Canada], BCL-xL, BCL2, XIAP, FLICEc-s, dominant-negative caspase-8, dominant negative caspase-9, SPI-6 (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application No. 20070026076), transcriptional factor PGC-α1, Pinch gene, ILK gene and thymosin β4 gene), clotting factors (e.g., Factor VIII, Factor IX, Factor X, etc.), erythropoietin, angiostatin, endostatin, catalase, tyrosine hydroxylase, an intracellular and/or extracellular superoxide dismutase, leptin, the LDL receptor, neprilysin, lipoprotein lipase, ornithine transcarbamylase, β-globin, α-globin, spectrin, α₁-antitrypsin, adenosine deaminase, hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, β-glucocerebrosidase, sphingomyelinase, lysosomal hexosaminidase A, branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase, RP65 protein, a cytokine (e.g., α-interferon, β-interferon, interferon-γ, interleukins-1 through -14, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, lymphotoxin, and the like), peptide growth factors, neurotrophic factors and hormones (e.g., somatotropin, insulin, insulin-like growth factors including IGF-1 and IGF-2, GLP-1, platelet derived growth factor, epidermal growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, nerve growth factor, neurotrophic factor-3 and -4, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial derived growth factor, transforming growth factor-α and -β, and the like), bone morphogenic proteins (including RANKL and VEGF), a lysosomal protein, a glutamate receptor, a lymphokine, soluble CD4, an Fc receptor, a T cell receptor, ApoE, ApoC, inhibitor 1 of protein phosphatase inhibitor 1 (I-1), phospholamban, serca2a, lysosomal acid α-glucosidase, α-galactosidase A, Barkct, β2-adrenergic receptor, β2-adrenergic receptor kinase (BARK), phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3 kinase), calsarcin, a receptor (e.g., the tumor necrosis growth factor-α soluble receptor), an anti-inflammatory factor such as IRAP, Pim-1, PGC-1α, SOD-1, SOD-2, ECF-SOD, kallikrein, thymosin-β4, hypoxia-inducible transcription factor [HIF], an angiogenic factor, S100A1, parvalbumin, adenylyl cyclase type 6, a molecule that effects G-protein coupled receptor kinase type 2 knockdown such as a truncated constitutively active bARKct; phospholamban inhibitory or dominant-negative molecules such as phospholamban S16E, a monoclonal antibody (including single chain monoclonal antibodies) or a suicide gene product (e.g., thymidine kinase, cytosine deaminase, diphtheria toxin, and tumor necrosis factors such as TNF-α), and any other polypeptide that has a therapeutic effect in a subject in need thereof.

Heterologous nucleotide sequences encoding polypeptides include those encoding reporter polypeptides (e.g., an enzyme). Reporter polypeptides are known in the art and include, but are not limited to, Green Fluorescent Protein, β-galactosidase, alkaline phosphatase, luciferase, and chloramphenicol acetyltransferase.

Alternatively, the heterologous nucleic acid may encode an antisense oligonucleotide, a ribozyme (e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,022), RNAs that effect spliceosome-mediated trans-splicing (see, Puttaraju et al., (1999) Nature Biotech. 17:246; U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,487; U.S. Pat. No. 6,083,702), interfering RNAs (RNAi) including small interfering RNAs (siRNA) that mediate gene silencing (see, Sharp et al., (2000) Science 287:2431), microRNA, or other non-translated “functional” RNAs, such as “guide” RNAs (Gorman et al., (1998) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 95:4929; U.S. Pat. No. 5,869,248 to Yuan et al.), and the like. Exemplary untranslated RNAs include RNAi or antisense RNA against the multiple drug resistance (MDR) gene product (e.g., to treat tumors and/or for administration to the heart to prevent damage by chemotherapy), RNAi or antisense RNA against myostatin (Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophy), RNAi or antisense RNA against VEGF or a tumor immunogen including but not limited to those tumor immunogens specifically described herein (to treat tumors), RNAi or antisense oligonucleotides targeting mutated dystrophins (Duchenne or Becker muscular dystrophy), RNAi or antisense RNA against the hepatitis B surface antigen gene (to prevent and/or treat hepatitis B infection), RNAi or antisense RNA against the HIV tat and/or rev genes (to prevent and/or treat HIV) and/or RNAi or antisense RNA against any other immunogen from a pathogen (to protect a subject from the pathogen) or a defective gene product (to prevent or treat disease). RNAi or antisense RNA against the targets described above or any other target can also be employed as a research reagent.

As is known in the art, anti-sense nucleic acids (e.g., DNA or RNA) and inhibitory RNA (e.g., microRNA and RNAi such as siRNA or shRNA) sequences can be used to induce “exon skipping” in patients with muscular dystrophy arising from defects in the dystrophin gene. Thus, the heterologous nucleic acid can encode an antisense nucleic acid or inhibitory RNA that induces appropriate exon skipping. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the particular approach to exon skipping depends upon the nature of the underlying defect in the dystrophin gene, and numerous such strategies are known in the art. Exemplary antisense nucleic acids and inhibitory RNA sequences target the upstream branch point and/or downstream donor splice site and/or internal splicing enhancer sequence of one or more of the dystrophin exons (e.g., exons 19 or 23). For example, in particular embodiments, the heterologous nucleic acid encodes an antisense nucleic acid or inhibitory RNA directed against the upstream branch point and downstream splice donor site of exon 19 or 23 of the dystrophin gene. Such sequences can be incorporated into an AAV vector delivering a modified U7 snRNA and the antisense nucleic acid or inhibitory RNA (see, e.g., Goyenvalle et al., (2004) Science 306:1796-1799). As another strategy, a modified U1 snRNA can be incorporated into an AAV vector along with siRNA, microRNA or antisense RNA complementary to the upstream and downstream splice sites of a dystrophin exon (e.g., exon 19 or 23) (see, e.g., Denti et al. (2006) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103:3758-3763). Further, antisense nucleic acids and inhibitory RNA can target the splicing enhancer sequences within exons 19, 43, 45 or 53 (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,653,467; U.S. Pat. No. 6,727,355; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,653,466).

Ribozymes are RNA-protein complexes that cleave nucleic acids in a site-specific fashion. Ribozymes have specific catalytic domains that possess endonuclease activity (Kim et al., (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:8788; Gerlach et al., (1987) Nature 328:802; Forster and Symons, (1987) Cell 49:211). For example, a large number of ribozymes accelerate phosphoester transfer reactions with a high degree of specificity, often cleaving only one of several phosphoesters in an oligonucleotide substrate (Michel and Westhof, (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 216:585; Reinhold-Hurek and Shub, (1992) Nature 357:173). This specificity has been attributed to the requirement that the substrate bind via specific base-pairing interactions to the internal guide sequence (“IGS”) of the ribozyme prior to chemical reaction.

Ribozyme catalysis has primarily been observed as part of sequence-specific cleavage/ligation reactions involving nucleic acids (Joyce, (1989) Nature 338:217). For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,354,855 reports that certain ribozymes can act as endonucleases with a sequence specificity greater than that of known ribonucleases and approaching that of the DNA restriction enzymes. Thus, sequence-specific ribozyme-mediated inhibition of nucleic acid expression may be particularly suited to therapeutic applications (Scanlon et al., (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:10591; Sarver et al., (1990) Science 247:1222; Sioud et al., (1992) J. Mol. Biol. 223:831).

MicroRNAs (mir) are natural cellular RNA molecules that can regulate the expression of multiple genes by controlling the stability of the mRNA. Over-expression or diminution of a particular microRNA can be used to treat a dysfunction and has been shown to be effective in a number of disease states and animal models of disease (see, e.g., Couzin, (2008) Science 319:1782-4). The scrambled AAV can be used to deliver microRNA into cells, tissues and subjects for the treatment of genetic and acquired diseases, or to enhance functionality and promote growth of certain tissues. For example, mir-1, mir-133, mir-206 and/or mir-208 can be used to treat cardiac and skeletal muscle disease (see, e.g., Chen et al., (2006) Genet. 38:228-33; van Rooij et al., (2008) Trends Genet. 24:159-66). MicroRNA can also be used to modulate the immune system after gene delivery (Brown et al., (2007) Blood 110:4144-52.)

The term “antisense oligonucleotide” (including “antisense RNA”) as used herein, refers to a nucleic acid that is complementary to and specifically hybridizes to a specified DNA or RNA sequence. Antisense oligonucleotides and nucleic acids that encode the same can be made in accordance with conventional techniques. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,023,243 to Tullis; U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,797 to Pederson et al.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that it is not necessary that the antisense oligonucleotide be fully complementary to the target sequence as long as the degree of sequence similarity is sufficient for the antisense nucleotide sequence to specifically hybridize to its target (as defined above) and reduce production of the protein product (e.g., by at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or more).

To determine the specificity of hybridization, hybridization of such oligonucleotides to target sequences can be carried out under conditions of reduced stringency, medium stringency or even stringent conditions. Suitable conditions for achieving reduced, medium and stringent hybridization conditions are as described herein.

Alternatively stated, in particular embodiments, antisense oligonucleotides of the invention have at least about 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98% or higher sequence similarity with the complement of the target sequence and reduce production of the protein product (as defined above). In some embodiments, the antisense sequence contains 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 mismatches as compared with the target sequence.

Methods of determining percent identity of nucleic acid sequences are described in more detail elsewhere herein.

The length of the antisense oligonucleotide is not critical as long as it specifically hybridizes to the intended target and reduces production of the protein product (as defined above) and can be determined in accordance with routine procedures. In general, the antisense oligonucleotide is at least about eight, ten or twelve or fifteen nucleotides in length and/or less than about 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100 or 150 nucleotides in length.

An antisense oligonucleotide can be constructed using chemical synthesis and enzymatic ligation reactions by procedures known in the art. For example, an antisense oligonucleotide can be chemically synthesized using naturally occurring nucleotides or various modified nucleotides designed to increase the biological stability of the molecules and/or to increase the physical stability of the duplex formed between the antisense and sense nucleotide sequences, e.g., phosphorothioate derivatives and acridine substituted nucleotides can be used.

Examples of modified nucleotides which can be used to generate the antisense oligonucleotide include 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil, 5-chlorouracil, 5-iodouracil, hypoxanthine, xanthine, 4-acetylcytosine, 5-(carboxyhydroxylmethyl)uracil, 5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2-thiouridine, 5-carboxymethylaminomet-hyluracil, dihydrouracil, beta-D-galactosylqueosine, inosine, N6-isopentenyladenine, 1-methylguanine, 1-methylinosine, 2,2-dimethylguanine, 2-methyladenine, 2-methylguanine, 3-methylcytosine, 5-methylcytosine, N6-adenine, 7-methylguanine, 5-methylaminomethyluracil, 5-methoxyaminomethyl-2-thiouracil, beta-D-mannosylqueosine, 5′-methoxycarboxymethyluracil, 5-methoxyuracil, 2-methylthio-N6-isopenten-yladenine, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), wybutoxosine, pseudouracil, queosine, 2-thiocytosine, 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 2-thiouracil, 4-thiouracil, 5-methyluracil, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid methylester, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid (v), 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 3-(3-amino-3-N-2-carboxypropyl) uracil, (acp3)w, and 2,6-diaminopurine.

The antisense oligonucleotides can further include nucleotide sequences wherein at least one, or all, of the internucleotide bridging phosphate residues are modified phosphates, such as methyl phosphonates, methyl phosphonothioates, phosphoromorpholidates, phosphoropiperazidates and phosphoramidates. For example, every other one of the internucleotide bridging phosphate residues can be modified as described.

As another non-limiting example, one or all of the nucleotides in the oligonucleotide can contain a 2′ loweralkyl moiety (e.g., C₁-C₄, linear or branched, saturated or unsaturated alkyl, such as methyl, ethyl, ethenyl, propyl, 1-propenyl, 2-propenyl, and isopropyl). For example, every other one of the nucleotides can be modified as described. See also, Furdon et al., (1989) Nucleic Acids Res. 17, 9193-9204; Agrawal et al., (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 1401-1405; Baker et al., (1990) Nucleic Acids Res. 18, 3537-3543; Sproat et al., (1989) Nucleic Acids Res. 17, 3373-3386; Walder and Walder, (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 5011-5015.

The antisense oligonucleotide can be chemically modified (e.g., at the 3′ and/or 5′ end) to be covalently conjugated to another molecule. To illustrate, the antisense oligonucleotide can be conjugated to a molecule that facilitates delivery to a cell of interest, enhances absorption by the nasal mucosa (e.g, by conjugation to a lipophilic moiety such as a fatty acid), provides a detectable marker, increases the bioavailability of the oligonucleotide, increases the stability of the oligonucleotide, improves the formulation or pharmacokinetic characteristics, and the like. Examples of conjugated molecules include but are not limited to cholesterol, lipids, polyamines, polyamides, polyesters, intercalators, reporter molecules, biotin, dyes, polyethylene glycol, human serum albumin, an enzyme, an antibody or antibody fragment, or a ligand for a cellular receptor.

Other modifications to nucleic acids to improve the stability, nuclease-resistance, bioavailability, formulation characteristics and/or pharmacokinetic properties are known in the art.

RNA interference (RNAi) is another useful approach for reducing production of a protein product (e.g., shRNA or siRNA). RNAi is a mechanism of post-transcriptional gene silencing in which double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) corresponding to a target sequence of interest is introduced into a cell or an organism, resulting in degradation of the corresponding mRNA. The mechanism by which RNAi achieves gene silencing has been reviewed in Sharp et al, (2001) Genes Dev 15: 485-490; and Hammond et al., (2001) Nature Rev Gen 2:110-119). The RNAi effect persists for multiple cell divisions before gene expression is regained. RNAi is therefore a powerful method for making targeted knockouts or “knockdowns” at the RNA level. RNAi has proven successful in human cells, including human embryonic kidney and HeLa cells (see, e.g., Elbashir et al., Nature (2001) 411:494-8).

Initial attempts to use RNAi in mammalian cells resulted in antiviral defense mechanisms involving PKR in response to the dsRNA molecules (see, e.g., Gil et al. (2000) Apoptosis 5:107). It has since been demonstrated that short synthetic dsRNA of about 21 nucleotides, known as “short interfering RNAs” (siRNA) can mediate silencing in mammalian cells without triggering the antiviral response (see, e.g., Elbashir et al., Nature (2001) 411:494-8; Caplen et al., (2001) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 98:9742).

The RNAi molecule (including an siRNA molecule) can be a short hairpin RNA (shRNA; see Paddison et al., (2002), PNAS USA 99:1443-1448), which is believed to be processed in the cell by the action of the RNase III like enzyme Dicer into 20-25 mer siRNA molecules. The shRNAs generally have a stem-loop structure in which two inverted repeat sequences are separated by a short spacer sequence that loops out. There have been reports of shRNAs with loops ranging from 3 to 23 nucleotides in length. The loop sequence is generally not critical. Exemplary loop sequences include the following motifs: AUG, CCC, UUCG, CCACC, CTCGAG, AAGCUU, CCACACC and UUCAAGAGA.

The RNAi can further comprise a circular molecule comprising sense and antisense regions with two loop regions on either side to form a “dumbbell” shaped structure upon dsRNA formation between the sense and antisense regions. This molecule can be processed in vitro or in vivo to release the dsRNA portion, e.g., a siRNA.

International patent publication WO 01/77350 describes a vector for bi-directional transcription to generate both sense and antisense transcripts of a heterologous sequence in a eukaryotic cell. This technique can be employed to produce RNAi for use according to the invention.

Shinagawa et al. (2003) Genes & Dev. 17:1340 reported a method of expressing long dsRNAs from a CMV promoter (a pol II promoter), which method is also applicable to tissue specific pol II promoters. Likewise, the approach of Xia et al., (2002) Nature Biotech. 20:1006, avoids poly(A) tailing and can be used in connection with tissue-specific promoters.

Methods of generating RNAi include chemical synthesis, in vitro transcription, digestion of long dsRNA by Dicer (in vitro or in vivo), expression in vivo from a delivery vector, and expression in vivo from a PCR-derived RNAi expression cassette (see, e.g., TechNotes 10(3) “Five Ways to Produce siRNAs,” from Ambion, Inc., Austin Tex.).

Guidelines for designing siRNA molecules are available (see e.g., literature from Ambion, Inc., Austin Tex.). In particular embodiments, the siRNA sequence has about 30-50% G/C content. Further, long stretches of greater than four T or A residues are generally avoided if RNA polymerase III is used to transcribe the RNA. Online siRNA target finders are available, e.g., from Ambion, Inc., through the Whitehead Institute of Biomedical Research or from Dharmacon Research, Inc.

The antisense region of the RNAi molecule can be completely complementary to the target sequence, but need not be as long as it specifically hybridizes to the target sequence (as defined above) and reduces production of the protein product (e.g., by at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or more). In some embodiments, hybridization of such oligonucleotides to target sequences can be carried out under conditions of reduced stringency, medium stringency or even stringent conditions, as defined above.

In other embodiments, the antisense region of the RNAi has at least about 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98% or higher sequence identity with the complement of the target sequence and reduces production of the protein product (e.g., by at least about 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or more). In some embodiments, the antisense region contains 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 mismatches as compared with the target sequence. Mismatches are generally tolerated better at the ends of the dsRNA than in the center portion.

In particular embodiments, the RNAi is formed by intermolecular complexing between two separate sense and antisense molecules. The RNAi comprises a ds region formed by the intermolecular basepairing between the two separate strands. In other embodiments, the RNAi comprises a ds region formed by intramolecular basepairing within a single nucleic acid molecule comprising both sense and antisense regions, typically as an inverted repeat (e.g., a shRNA or other stem loop structure, or a circular RNAi molecule). The RNAi can further comprise a spacer region between the sense and antisense regions.

The RNAi molecule can contain modified sugars, nucleotides, backbone linkages and other modifications as described above for antisense oligonucleotides.

Generally, RNAi molecules are highly selective. If desired, those skilled in the art can readily eliminate candidate RNAi that are likely to interfere with expression of nucleic acids other than the target by searching relevant databases to identify RNAi sequences that do not have substantial sequence homology with other known sequences, for example, using BLAST.

Kits for the production of RNAi are commercially available, e.g., from New England Biolabs, Inc. and Ambion, Inc.

The recombinant virus vector may also comprise a heterologous nucleotide sequence that shares homology with and recombines with a locus on the host chromosome. This approach may be utilized to correct a genetic defect in the host cell.

The present invention also provides recombinant virus vectors that express an immunogenic polypeptide, e.g., for vaccination. The heterologous nucleic acid may encode any immunogen of interest known in the art including, but are not limited to, immunogens from human immunodeficiency virus, influenza virus, gag proteins, tumor antigens, cancer antigens, bacterial antigens, viral antigens, and the like. Alternatively, the immunogen can be presented in the virus capsid (e.g., incorporated therein) or tethered to the virus capsid (e.g., by covalent modification).

The use of parvoviruses as vaccines is known in the art (see, e.g., Miyamura et al., (1994) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA 91:8507; U.S. Pat. No. 5,916,563 to Young et al., 5,905,040 to Mazzara et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,882,652, U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,541 to Samulski et al.; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by reference). The antigen may be presented in the virus capsid. Alternatively, the antigen may be expressed from a heterologous nucleic acid introduced into a recombinant vector genome.

An immunogenic polypeptide, or immunogen, may be any polypeptide suitable for protecting the subject against a disease, including but not limited to microbial, bacterial, protozoal, parasitic, fungal and viral diseases. For example, the immunogen may be an orthomyxovirus immunogen (e.g., an influenza virus immunogen, such as the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) surface protein or the influenza virus nucleoprotein gene, or an equine influenza virus immunogen), or a lentivirus immunogen (e.g., an equine infectious anemia virus immunogen, a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) immunogen, or a Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) immunogen, such as the HIV or SIV envelope GP160 protein, the HIV or SIV matrix/capsid proteins, and the HIV or SIV gag, pol and env genes products). The immunogen may also be an arenavirus immunogen (e.g., Lassa fever virus immunogen, such as the Lassa fever virus nucleocapsid protein gene and the Lassa fever envelope glycoprotein gene), a poxvirus immunogen (e.g., vaccinia, such as the vaccinia L1 or L8 genes), a flavivirus immunogen (e.g., a yellow fever virus immunogen or a Japanese encephalitis virus immunogen), a filovirus immunogen (e.g., an Ebola virus immunogen, or a Marburg virus immunogen, such as NP and GP genes), a bunyavirus immunogen (e.g., RVFV, CCHF, and SFS viruses), or a coronavirus immunogen (e.g., an infectious human coronavirus immunogen, such as the human coronavirus envelope glycoprotein gene, or a porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus immunogen, or an avian infectious bronchitis virus immunogen, or a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) immunogen such as a S [S1 or S2], M, E, or N protein or an immunogenic fragment thereof). The immunogen may further be a polio immunogen, herpes immunogen (e.g., CMV, EBV, HSV immunogens) mumps immunogen, measles immunogen, rubella immunogen, diphtheria toxin or other diptheria immunogen, pertussis antigen, hepatitis (e.g., hepatitis A, hepatitis B or hepatitis C) immunogen, or any other vaccine immunogen known in the art.

Alternatively, the immunogen may be any tumor or cancer cell antigen. Optionally, the tumor or cancer antigen is expressed on the surface of the cancer cell. Exemplary cancer and tumor cell antigens are described in S. A. Rosenberg, (1999) Immunity 10:281). Illustrative cancer and tumor antigens include, but are not limited to: BRCA1 gene product, BRCA2 gene product, gp100, tyrosinase, GAGE-1/2, BAGE, RAGE, NY-ESO-1, CDK-4, β-catenin, MUM-1, Caspase-8, KIAA0205, HPVE, SART-1, PRAME, p15, melanoma tumor antigens (Kawakami et al., (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3515; Kawakami et al., (1994) J. Exp. Med., 180:347; Kawakami et al., (1994) Cancer Res. 54:3124) including MART-1 (Coulie et al., (1991) J. Exp. Med. 180:35), gp100 (Wick et al., (1988) J. Cutan. Pathol. 4:201) and MAGE antigen (MAGE-1, MAGE-2 and MAGE-3) (Van der Bruggen et al., (1991) Science, 254:1643), CEA, TRP-1; TRP-2; P-15 and tyrosinase (Brichard et al., (1993) J. Exp. Med. 178:489); HER-2/neu gene product (U.S. Pat. No. 4,968,603); CA 125; HE4; LK26; FB5 (endosialin); TAG 72; AFP; CA19-9; NSE; DU-PAN-2; CA50; SPan-1; CA72-4; HCG; STN (sialyl Tn antigen); c-erbB-2 proteins; PSA; L-CanAg; estrogen receptor; milk fat globulin; p53 tumor suppressor protein (Levine, (1993) Ann. Rev. Biochem. 62:623); mucin antigens (international patent publication WO 90/05142); telomerases; nuclear matrix proteins; prostatic acid phosphatase; papilloma virus antigens; and antigens associated with the following cancers: melanomas, adenocarcinoma, thymoma, sarcoma, lung cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, leukemias, uterine cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, pancreatic cancer, brain cancer, kidney cancer, stomach cancer, esophageal cancer, head and neck cancer and others (see, e.g., Rosenberg, (1996) Ann. Rev. Med. 47:481-91).

Alternatively, the heterologous nucleotide sequence may encode any polypeptide that is desirably produced in a cell in vitro, ex vivo, or in vivo. For example, the virus vectors may be introduced into cultured cells and the expressed protein product isolated therefrom.

It will be understood by those skilled in the art that the heterologous nucleic acid(s) of interest may be operably associated with appropriate control sequences. For example, the heterologous nucleic acid may be operably associated with expression control elements, such as transcription/translation control signals, origins of replication, polyadenylation signals, internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), promoters, enhancers, and the like.

Those skilled in the art will further appreciate that a variety of promoter/enhancer elements may be used depending on the level and tissue-specific expression desired. The promoter/enhancer may be constitutive or inducible, depending on the pattern of expression desired. The promoter/enhancer may be native or foreign and can be a natural or a synthetic sequence. By foreign, it is intended that the transcriptional initiation region is not found in the wild-type host into which the transcriptional initiation region is introduced.

Promoter/enhancer elements can be native to the target cell or subject to be treated and/or native to the heterologous nucleic acid sequence. The promoter/enhancer element is generally chosen so that it will function in the target cell(s) of interest. In representative embodiments, the promoter/enhancer element is a mammalian promoter/enhancer element. The promoter/enhance element may be constitutive or inducible.

Inducible expression control elements are generally used in those applications in which it is desirable to provide regulation over expression of the heterologous nucleic acid sequence(s). Inducible promoters/enhancer elements for gene delivery can be tissue-specific or tissue-preferred promoter/enhancer elements, and include muscle specific or preferred (including cardiac, skeletal and/or smooth muscle), neural tissue specific or preferred (including brain-specific), eye (including retina-specific and cornea-specific), liver specific or preferred, bone marrow specific or preferred, pancreatic specific or preferred, spleen specific or preferred, and lung specific or preferred promoter/enhancer elements. Other inducible promoter/enhancer elements include hormone-inducible and metal-inducible elements. Exemplary inducible promoters/enhancer elements include, but are not limited to, a Tet on/off element, a RU486-inducible promoter, an ecdysone-inducible promoter, a rapamycin-inducible promoter, and a metallothionein promoter.

In embodiments wherein which the heterologous nucleic acid sequence(s) is transcribed and then translated in the target cells, specific initiation signals are generally employed for efficient translation of inserted protein coding sequences. These exogenous translational control sequences, which may include the ATG initiation codon and adjacent sequences, can be of a variety of origins, both natural and synthetic.

The invention also provides scrambled AAV particles comprising an AAV capsid and an AAV genome, wherein the AAV genome “corresponds to” (i.e., encodes) the AAV capsid. Also provided are collections or libraries of such scrambled AAV particles, wherein the collection or library comprises 2 or more, 10 or more, 50 or more, 100 or more, 1000 or more, 10⁴ or more, 10⁵ or more, or 10⁶ or more distinct sequences.

The present invention further encompasses “empty” capsid particles (i.e., in the absence of a vector genome) comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of the scrambled AAV capsid proteins of the invention. The scrambled AAV capsids of the invention can be used as “capsid vehicles,” as has been described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,541. Molecules that can be covalently linked, bound to or packaged by the virus capsids and transferred into a cell include DNA, RNA, a lipid, a carbohydrate, a polypeptide, a small organic molecule, or combinations of the same. Further, molecules can be associated with (e.g., “tethered to”) the outside of the virus capsid for transfer of the molecules into host target cells. In one embodiment of the invention the molecule is covalently linked (i.e., conjugated or chemically coupled) to the capsid proteins. Methods of covalently linking molecules are known by those skilled in the art.

The virus capsids of the invention also find use in raising antibodies against the novel capsid structures. As a further alternative, an exogenous amino acid sequence may be inserted into the virus capsid for antigen presentation to a cell, e.g., for administration to a subject to produce an immune response to the exogenous amino acid sequence.

The invention also provides nucleic acids (e.g., isolated nucleic acids) encoding the scrambled virus capsids and scrambled capsid proteins of the invention. Further provided are vectors comprising the nucleic acids, and cells (in vivo or in culture) comprising the nucleic acids and/or vectors of the invention. Such nucleic acids, vectors and cells can be used, for example, as reagents (e.g., helper constructs or packaging cells) for the production of virus vectors as described herein.

In exemplary embodiments, the invention provides nucleic acid sequences encoding the AAV capsids of FIGS. 3C, 3F, 3I, 3L, 3O, 3R, 3U, 3X, 3ZZ, 3DD, 3GG, 3JJ, 3MM, 3PP, 3SS, 3VV, 3YY, 3BBB, 3EEE, 6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, 6J, 6L, 6N, 6P, 6R, 6T, 6V, 6X, 6Z, 6BB, 6DD, 6FF, 6HH, 6JJ, 6LL, 6NN, 6PP, 6RR, 6TT, 6VV, 6XX, 6ZZ, 6BBB, 6DDD, 6FFF, 6HHH, 6JJJ, 6LLL, 6NNN, 6PPP, 6RRR, 6TTT, 6VVV, 6XXX, 6ZZZ, 6BBBB, 6DDDD, 6FFFF, 6HHHH, 6JJJJ, 6LLLL, 6NNNN, 6PPPP, 6RRRR, 6TTTT and/or 6VVVV. Representative nucleic acids comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of the sequences of FIG. 3, i.e., the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3E (M17); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3H (M22); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3K (M35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3B (M41); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3N (M42); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Q (M62); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3T (M67); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3W (M125); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3Z (M148); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3CC (M151); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3FF (H18); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3II (H34); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3LL (H39); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3OO (H40); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3RR (H43); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3UU (H50); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3XX (H53); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3AAA (H66); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 3DDD (H109); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6A (HH1); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6C (HH15); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6E (HH19); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6G (HH27); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6I (HH35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6K (HH41); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6M (HH45); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6O (HH53); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Q (HH67); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6S (HH68); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6U (HH75); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6W (HH87); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Y (HH64); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6AA (MH4); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CC (MH18); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EE (MH21); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GG (MH31); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6II (MH39); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KK (MHY43); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MM (MH47); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OO (MH58); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQ (MH63); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SS (MH71); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UU (MH74); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WW (MH78); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YY (MH82); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6AAA (MH90); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCC (MH94); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEE (MH95); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGG (MH107); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6III (MH113); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKK (MM4); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMM (MM7); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOO (MM19); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQ (MM35); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSS (MM44); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UUU (MM55); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6WWW (MM65); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6YYY (MM68); the nucleotide sequence of 6AAAA (MM84); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6CCCC (MM107); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6EEEE (MM112); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6GGGG (MM115); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6IIII (MM120); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6KKKK (MM123); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6MMMM (MM136); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6OOOO (MM138); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6QQQQ (MM141); the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6SSSS (MM144), or the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6UUUU (MM153); or a nucleotide sequence that encodes an AAV capsid encoded by the nucleotide sequence of any of the foregoing but that differs from the nucleotide sequences above due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, which allows different nucleic acid sequences to code for the same polypeptide.

The invention also provides nucleic acids encoding the AAV capsid variants, capsid protein variants and fusion proteins as described above. In particular embodiments, the nucleic acid hybridizes to the complement of the nucleic acid sequences specifically disclosed herein (e.g., see FIGS. 3B, 3E, 3H, 3K, 3N, 3Q, 3T, 3W, 3Z, 3CC, 3FF, 3II, 3LL, 3OO, 3RR, 3UU, 3XX, 3AAA, 3DDD, 6A, 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, 6K, 6M, 6O, 6Q, 6S, 6U, 6W, 6Y, 6AA, 6CC, 6EE, 6GG, 6II, 6KK, 6MM, 6OO, 6QQ, 6SS, 6UU, 6WW, 6YY, 6AAA, 6CCC, 6EEE, 6GGG, 6III, 6KKK, 6MMM, 6OOO, 6QQQ, 6SSS, 6UUU, 6WWW, 6YYY, 6AAAA, 6CCCC, 6EEEE, 6GGGG, 6IIII, 6KKKK, 6MMMM, 6OOOO, 6QQQQ, 6SSSS and/or 6UUUU) under standard conditions as known by those skilled in the art and encodes a variant capsid and/or capsid protein. Optionally, the variant capsid or capsid protein substantially retains at least one property of the capsid and/or capsid or capsid protein encoded by the nucleic acid sequences of FIGS. 3B, 3E, 3H, 3K, 3N, 3Q, 3T, 3W, 3Z, 3CC, 3FF, 3II, 3LL, 3OO, 3RR, 3UU, 3XX, 3AAA, 3DDD, 6A, 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, 6K, 6M, 6O, 6Q, 6S, 6U, 6W, 6Y, 6AA, 6CC, 6EE, 6GG, 6II, 6KK, 6MM, 6OO, 6QQ, 6SS, 6UU, 6WW, 6YY, 6AAA, 6CCC, 6EEE, 6GGG, 6III, 6KKK, 6MMM, 6OOO, 6QQQ, 6SSS, 6UUU, 6WWW, 6YYY, 6AAAA, 6CCCC, 6EEEE, 6GGGG, 6IIII, 6KKKK, 6MMMM, 6OOOO, 6QQQQ, 6SSSS and/or 6UUUU. For example, a virus particle comprising the variant capsid or variant capsid protein can substantially retain the tropism profile of a virus particle comprising a capsid or capsid protein encoded by a nucleic acid coding sequence as shown in FIGS. 3B, 3E, 3H, 3K, 3N, 3Q, 3T, 3W, 3Z, 3CC, 3FF, 3II, 3LL, 3OO, 3RR, 3UU, 3XX, 3AAA, 3DDD, 6A, 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, 6K, 6M, 6O, 6Q, 6S, 6U, 6W, 6Y, 6AA, 6CC, 6EE, 6GG, 6II, 6KK, 6MM, 6OO, 6QQ, 6SS, 6UU, 6WW, 6YY, 6AAA, 6CCC, 6EEE, 6GGG, 6III, 6KKK, 6MMM, 6OOO, 6QQQ, 6SSS, 6UUU, 6WWW, 6YYY, 6AAAA, 6CCCC, 6EEEE, 6GGGG, 6IIII, 6KKKK, 6MMMM, 6OOOO, 6QQQQ, 6SSSS and/or 6UUUU (e.g., inefficient transduction of liver and/or efficient transduction of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and/or tongue muscle).

For example, hybridization of such sequences may be carried out under conditions of reduced stringency, medium stringency or even stringent conditions. Exemplary conditions for reduced, medium and stringent hybridization are as follows: (e.g., conditions represented by a wash stringency of 35-40% Formamide with 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.5% SDS and 1×SSPE at 37° C.; conditions represented by a wash stringency of 40-45% Formamide with 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.5% SDS, and 1×SSPE at 42° C.; and conditions represented by a wash stringency of 50% Formamide with 5× Denhardt's solution, 0.5% SDS and 1×SSPE at 42° C., respectively). See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual (2d Ed. 1989) (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory).

In other embodiments, nucleic acid sequences encoding a variant capsid or capsid protein of the invention have at least about 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97% or higher sequence identity with the nucleic acid sequences specifically disclosed in FIGS. 3B, 3E, 3H, 3K, 3N, 3Q, 3T, 3W, 3Z, 3CC, 3FF, 3II, 3LL, 3OO, 3RR, 3UU, 3XX, 3AAA, 3DDD, 6A, 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, 6K, 6M, 6O, 6Q, 6S, 6U, 6W, 6Y, 6AA, 6CC, 6EE, 6GG, 6II, 6KK, 6MM, 6OO, 6QQ, 6SS, 6UU, 6WW, 6YY, 6AAA, 6CCC, 6EEE, 6GGG, 6III, 6KKK, 6MMM, 6OOO, 6QQQ, 6SSS, 6UUU, 6WWW, 6YYY, 6AAAA, 6CCCC, 6EEEE, 6GGGG, 6IIII, 6KKKK, 6MMMM, 6OOOO, 6QQQQ, 6SSSS and/or 6UUUU) and optionally encode a variant capsid or capsid protein that substantially retains at least one property of the capsid or capsid protein encoded by a nucleic acid as shown in FIGS. 3B, 3E, 3H, 3K, 3N, 3Q, 3T, 3W, 3Z, 3CC, 3FF, 3II, 3LL, 3OO, 3RR, 3UU, 3XX, 3AAA, 3DDD, 6A, 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, 6K, 6M, 6O, 6Q, 6S, 6U, 6W, 6Y, 6AA, 6CC, 6EE, 6GG, 6II, 6KK, 6MM, 6OO, 6QQ, 6SS, 6UU, 6WW, 6YY, 6AAA, 6CCC, 6EEE, 6GGG, 6III, 6KKK, 6MMM, 6OOO, 6QQQ, 6SSS, 6UUU, 6WWW, 6YYY, 6AAAA, 6CCCC, 6EEEE, 6GGGG, 6IIII, 6KKKK, 6MMMM, 6OOOO, 6QQQQ, 6SSSS and/or 6UUUU.

As is known in the art, a number of different programs can be used to identify whether a nucleic acid or polypeptide has sequence identity to a known sequence. Percent identity as used herein means that a nucleic acid or fragment thereof shares a specified percent identity to another nucleic acid, when optimally aligned (with appropriate nucleotide insertions or deletions) with the other nucleic acid (or its complementary strand), using BLASTN. To determine percent identity between two different nucleic acids, the percent identity is to be determined using the BLASTN program “BLAST 2 sequences”. This program is available for public use from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) over the Internet (Altschul et al., (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25(17):3389-3402). The parameters to be used are whatever combination of the following yields the highest calculated percent identity (as calculated below) with the default parameters shown in parentheses: Program-blastn Matrix-0 BLOSUM62 Reward for a match-0 or 1 (1) Penalty for a mismatch-0, -1, -2 or -3 (-2) Open gap penalty-0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 (5) Extension gap penalty-0 or 1 (1) Gap x_dropoff-0 or 50 (50) Expect-10.

Percent identity or similarity when referring to polypeptides, indicates that the polypeptide in question exhibits a specified percent identity or similarity when compared with another protein or a portion thereof over the common lengths as determined using BLASTP. This program is also available for public use from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) over the Internet (Altschul et al., (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25(17):3389-3402). Percent identity or similarity for polypeptides is typically measured using sequence analysis software. See, e.g., the Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer Group, University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center, 910 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705. Protein analysis software matches similar sequences using measures of homology assigned to various substitutions, deletions and other modifications. Conservative substitutions typically include substitutions within the following groups: glycine, alanine; valine, isoleucine, leucine; aspartic acid, glutamic acid; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine; lysine, arginine; and phenylalanine, tyrosine.

In particular embodiments, the nucleic acid can comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of a vector including but not limited to a plasmid, phage, viral vector (e.g., AAV vector, an adenovirus vector, a herpesvirus vector, or a baculovirus vector), bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), or yeast artificial chromosome (YAC). For example, the nucleic acid can comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of an AAV vector comprising a 5′ and/or 3′ terminal repeat (e.g., 5′ and/or 3′ AAV terminal repeat).

In some embodiments, the nucleic acid encoding the scrambled AAV capsid protein further comprises an AAV Rep coding sequence. For example, the nucleic acid can be a helper construct for producing viral stocks.

The invention also provides packaging cells stably comprising a nucleic acid of the invention. For example, the nucleic acid can be stably incorporated into the genome of the cell or can be stably maintained in an episomal form (e.g., an “EBV based nuclear episome”).

The nucleic acid can be incorporated into a delivery vector, such as a viral delivery vector. To illustrate, the nucleic acid of the invention can be packaged in an AAV particle, an adenovirus particle, a herpesvirus particle, a baculovirus particle, or any other suitable virus particle.

Moreover, the nucleic acid can be operably associated with a promoter element. Promoter elements are described in more detail herein.

The present invention further provides methods of producing the virus vectors of the invention. In a representative embodiment, the present invention provides a method of producing a recombinant virus vector, the method comprising providing to a cell in vitro, (a) a template comprising (i) a heterologous nucleic acid, and (ii) packaging signal sequences sufficient for the encapsidation of the AAV template into virus particles (e.g., one or more [e.g., two] terminal repeats, such as AAV terminal repeats), and (b) AAV sequences sufficient for replication and encapsidation of the template into viral particles (e.g., the AAV rep and AAV cap sequences encoding an AAV capsid of the invention). The template and AAV replication and capsid sequences are provided under conditions such that recombinant virus particles comprising the template packaged within the capsid are produced in the cell. The method can further comprise the step of collecting the virus particles from the cell. Virus particles may be collected from the medium and/or by lysing the cells.

In one illustrative embodiment, the invention provides a method of producing a rAAV particle comprising an AAV capsid, the method comprising: providing a cell in vitro with a nucleic acid encoding a scrambled AAV capsid of the invention, an AAV rep coding sequence, an AAV vector genome comprising a heterologous nucleic acid, and helper functions for generating a productive AAV infection; and allowing assembly of the AAV particles comprising the AAV capsid and encapsidating the AAV vector genome.

The cell is typically a cell that is permissive for AAV viral replication. Any suitable cell known in the art may be employed, such as mammalian cells. Also suitable are trans-complementing packaging cell lines that provide functions deleted from a replication-defective helper virus, e.g., 293 cells or other Ela trans-complementing cells.

The AAV replication and capsid sequences may be provided by any method known in the art. Current protocols typically express the AAV rep/cap genes on a single plasmid. The AAV replication and packaging sequences need not be provided together, although it may be convenient to do so. The AAV rep and/or cap sequences may be provided by any viral or non-viral vector. For example, the rep/cap sequences may be provided by a hybrid adenovirus or herpesvirus vector (e.g., inserted into the E1a or E3 regions of a deleted adenovirus vector). EBV vectors may also be employed to express the AAV cap and rep genes. One advantage of this method is that EBV vectors are episomal, yet will maintain a high copy number throughout successive cell divisions (i.e., are stably integrated into the cell as extra-chromosomal elements, designated as an EBV based nuclear episome.

As a further alternative, the rep/cap sequences may be stably carried (episomal or integrated) within a cell.

Typically, the AAV rep/cap sequences will not be flanked by the AAV packaging sequences (e.g., MV ITRs), to prevent rescue and/or packaging of these sequences.

The template (e.g., an rAAV vector genome) can be provided to the cell using any method known in the art. For example, the template may be supplied by a non-viral (e.g., plasmid) or viral vector. In particular embodiments, the template is supplied by a herpesvirus or adenovirus vector (e.g., inserted into the E1a or E3 regions of a deleted adenovirus). As another illustration, Palombo et al., (1998) J. Virology 72:5025, describe a baculovirus vector carrying a reporter gene flanked by the AAV ITRs. EBV vectors may also be employed to deliver the template, as described above with respect to the rep/cap genes.

In another representative embodiment, the template is provided by a replicating rAAV virus. In still other embodiments, an AAV provirus is stably integrated into the chromosome of the cell.

To obtain maximal virus titers, helper virus functions (e.g., adenovirus or herpesvirus) essential for a productive AAV infection are generally provided to the cell. Helper virus sequences necessary for AAV replication are known in the art. Typically, these sequences are provided by a helper adenovirus or herpesvirus vector. Alternatively, the adenovirus or herpesvirus sequences can be provided by another non-viral or viral vector, e.g., as a non-infectious adenovirus miniplasmid that carries all of the helper genes required for efficient AAV production as described by Ferrari et al., (1997) Nature Med. 3:1295, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,040,183 and 6,093,570.

Further, the helper virus functions may be provided by a packaging cell with the helper genes integrated in the chromosome or maintained as a stable extrachromosomal element. In representative embodiments, the helper virus sequences cannot be packaged into AAV virions, e.g., are not flanked by AAV ITRs.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that it may be advantageous to provide the AAV replication and capsid sequences and the helper virus sequences (e.g., adenovirus sequences) on a single helper construct. This helper construct may be a non-viral or viral construct, but is optionally a hybrid adenovirus or hybrid herpesvirus comprising the AAV rep/cap genes.

In one particular embodiment, the AAV rep/cap sequences and the adenovirus helper sequences are supplied by a single adenovirus helper vector. This vector further contains the rAAV template. The AAV rep/cap sequences and/or the rAAV template may be inserted into a deleted region (e.g., the E1a or E3 regions) of the adenovirus.

In a further embodiment, the AAV rep/cap sequences and the adenovirus helper sequences are supplied by a single adenovirus helper vector. The rAAV template is provided as a plasmid template.

In another illustrative embodiment, the AAV rep/cap sequences and adenovirus helper sequences are provided by a single adenovirus helper vector, and the rAAV template is integrated into the cell as a provirus. Alternatively, the rAAV template is provided by an EBV vector that is maintained within the cell as an extrachromosomal element (e.g., as a “EBV based nuclear episome,” see Margolski, (1992) Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immun. 158:67).

In a further exemplary embodiment, the AAV rep/cap sequences and adenovirus helper sequences are provided by a single adenovirus helper. The rAAV template is provided as a separate replicating viral vector. For example, the rAAV template may be provided by a rAAV particle or a second recombinant adenovirus particle.

According to the foregoing methods, the hybrid adenovirus vector typically comprises the adenovirus 5′ and 3′ cis sequences sufficient for adenovirus replication and packaging (i.e., the adenovirus terminal repeats and PAC sequence). The AAV rep/cap sequences and, if present, the rAAV template are embedded in the adenovirus backbone and are flanked by the 5′ and 3′ cis sequences, so that these sequences may be packaged into adenovirus capsids. As described above, in representative embodiments, the adenovirus helper sequences and the AAV rep/cap sequences are not flanked by the AAV packaging sequences (e.g., the AAV ITRs), so that these sequences are not packaged into the AAV virions.

Herpesvirus may also be used as a helper virus in AAV packaging methods. Hybrid herpesviruses encoding the AAV Rep protein(s) may advantageously facilitate for more scalable AAV vector production schemes. A hybrid herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1) vector expressing the AAV-2 rep and cap genes has been described (Conway et al., (1999) Gene Therapy 6:986 and WO 00/17377, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entireties).

As a further alternative, the virus vectors of the invention can be produced in insect cells using baculovirus vectors to deliver the rep/cap genes and rAAV template as described by Urabe et al., (2002) Human Gene Therapy 13:1935-43.

Other methods of producing AAV use stably transformed packaging cells (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,785).

AAV vector stocks free of contaminating helper virus may be obtained by any method known in the art. For example, AAV and helper virus may be readily differentiated based on size. AAV may also be separated away from helper virus based on affinity for a heparin substrate (Zolotukhin et al. (1999) Gene Therapy 6:973). In representative embodiments, deleted replication-defective helper viruses are used so that any contaminating helper virus is not replication competent. As a further alternative, an adenovirus helper lacking late gene expression may be employed, as only adenovirus early gene expression is required to mediate packaging of AAV virus. Adenovirus mutants defective for late gene expression are known in the art (e.g., ts100K and ts149 adenovirus mutants).

The inventive packaging methods may be employed to produce high titer stocks of virus particles. In particular embodiments, the virus stock has a titer of at least about 10⁵ transducing units (tu)/ml, at least about 10⁸ tu/ml, at least about 10⁷ tu/ml, at least about 10⁸ tu/ml, at least about 10⁹ tu/ml, or at least about 10¹⁰ tu/ml.

The novel capsid protein and capsid structures find use in raising antibodies, for example, for diagnostic or therapeutic uses or as a research reagent. Thus, the invention also provides antibodies against the novel capsid proteins and capsids of the invention.

The term “antibody” or “antibodies” as used herein refers to all types of immunoglobulins, including IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE. The antibody can be monoclonal or polyclonal and can be of any species of origin, including (for example) mouse, rat, rabbit, horse, goat, sheep or human, or can be a chimeric antibody. See, e.g., Walker et al., Molec. Immunol. 26, 403-11 (1989). The antibodies can be recombinant monoclonal antibodies, for example, produced according to the methods disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,474,893 or U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567. The antibodies can also be chemically constructed, for example, according to the method disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,676,980.

Antibody fragments included within the scope of the present invention include, for example, Fab, F(ab′)2, and Fc fragments, and the corresponding fragments obtained from antibodies other than IgG. Such fragments can be produced by known techniques. For example, F(ab′)2 fragments can be produced by pepsin digestion of the antibody molecule, and Fab fragments can be generated by reducing the disulfide bridges of the F(ab′)2 fragments. Alternatively, Fab expression libraries can be constructed to allow rapid and easy identification of monoclonal Fab fragments with the desired specificity (Huse et al., (1989) Science 254, 1275-1281).

Polyclonal antibodies can be produced by immunizing a suitable animal (e.g., rabbit, goat, etc.) with an antigen to which a monoclonal antibody to the target binds, collecting immune serum from the animal, and separating the polyclonal antibodies from the immune serum, in accordance with known procedures.

Monoclonal antibodies can be produced in a hybridoma cell line according to the technique of Kohler and Milstein, (1975) Nature 265, 495-97. For example, a solution containing the appropriate antigen can be injected into a mouse and, after a sufficient time, the mouse sacrificed and spleen cells obtained. The spleen cells are then immortalized by fusing them with myeloma cells or with lymphoma cells, typically in the presence of polyethylene glycol, to produce hybridoma cells. The hybridoma cells are then grown in a suitable medium and the supernatant screened for monoclonal antibodies having the desired specificity. Monoclonal Fab fragments can be produced in E. coli by recombinant techniques known to those skilled in the art. See, e.g., W. Huse, (1989) Science 246, 1275-81.

Antibodies specific to a target polypeptide can also be obtained by phage display techniques known in the art.

Various immunoassays can be used for screening to identify antibodies having the desired specificity. Numerous protocols for competitive binding or immunoradiometric assays using either polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies with established specificity are well known in the art. Such immunoassays typically involve the measurement of complex formation between an antigen and its specific antibody (e.g., antigen/antibody complex formation). A two-site, monoclonal-based immunoassay utilizing monoclonal antibodies reactive to two non-interfering epitopes can be used as well as a competitive binding assay.

Antibodies can be conjugated to a solid support (e.g., beads, plates, slides or wells formed from materials such as latex or polystyrene) in accordance with known techniques. Antibodies can likewise be conjugated to detectable groups such as radiolabels (e.g., ³⁵S, ¹²⁵I, ¹³¹I), enzyme labels (e.g., horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase), and fluorescence labels (e.g., fluorescein) in accordance with known techniques. Determination of the formation of an antibody/antigen complex in the methods of this invention can be by detection of, for example, precipitation, agglutination, flocculation, radioactivity, color development or change, fluorescence, luminescence, etc., as is well known in the art.

The present invention also encompasses methods for delivering heterologous nucleotide sequences into a broad range of cells, including dividing and non-dividing cells. The virus vectors of the invention may be employed to deliver a nucleotide sequence of interest to a cell in vitro, e.g., to produce a polypeptide in vitro or for ex vivo gene therapy. The vectors are additionally useful in a method of delivering a nucleotide sequence to a subject in need thereof, e.g., to express an immunogenic or therapeutic polypeptide. In this manner, the polypeptide may thus be produced in vivo in the subject. The subject may be in need of the polypeptide because the subject has a deficiency of the polypeptide, or because the production of the polypeptide in the subject may impart some therapeutic effect, as a method of treatment or otherwise, and as explained further below.

In general, the virus vectors of the invention may be employed to deliver any foreign nucleic acid with a biological effect to treat or ameliorate the symptoms associated with any disorder related to gene expression. Further, the invention can be used to treat any disease state for which it is beneficial to deliver a therapeutic polypeptide. Illustrative disease states include, but are not limited to: cystic fibrosis (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein) and other diseases of the lung, hemophilia A (Factor VIII), hemophilia B (Factor IX), thalassemia (β-globin), anemia (erythropoietin) and other blood disorders, Alzheimer's disease (GDF; neprilysin), multiple sclerosis (β-interferon), Parkinson's disease (glial-cell line derived neurotrophic factor [GDNF]), Huntington's disease (inhibitory RNA including without limitation RNAi such as siRNA or shRNA, antisense RNA or microRNA to remove repeats), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy (galanin, neurotrophic factors), and other neurological disorders, cancer (endostatin, angiostatin, TRAIL, FAS-ligand, cytokines including interferons; inhibitory RNA including without limitation RNAi (such as siRNA or shRNA), antisense RNA and microRNA including inhibitory RNA against VEGF, the multiple drug resistance gene product or a cancer immunogen), diabetes mellitus (insulin, PGC-α1, GLP-1, myostatin pro-peptide, glucose transporter 4), muscular dystrophies including Duchenne and Becker (e.g., dystrophin, mini-dystrophin, micro-dystrophin, insulin-like growth factor I, a sarcoglycan [e.g., a, R, y], Inhibitory RNA [e.g., RNAi, antisense RNA or microRNA] against myostatin or myostatin propeptide, laminin-alpha2, Fukutan-related protein, dominant negative myostatin, follistatin, activin type II soluble receptor, anti-inflammatory polypeptides such as the [kappa B dominant mutant, sarcospan, utrophin, mini-utrophin, inhibitory RNA [e.g., RNAi, antisense RNA or microRNA] against splice junctions in the dystrophin gene to induce exon skipping [see, e.g., WO/2003/095647], inhibitory RNA (e.g., RNAi, antisense RNA or micro RNA] against U7 snRNAs to induce exon skipping [see, e.g., WO/2006/021724], and antibodies or antibody fragments against myostatin or myostatin propeptide), Gaucher disease (glucocerebrosidase), Hurler's disease (α-L-iduronidase), adenosine deaminase deficiency (adenosine deaminase), glycogen storage diseases (e.g., Fabry disease [α-galactosidase] and Pompe disease [lysosomal acid α-glucosidase]) and other metabolic defects including other lysosomal storage disorders and glycogen storage disorders, congenital emphysema (al-antitrypsin), Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome (hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase), Niemann-Pick disease (sphingomyelinase), Maple Syrup Urine Disease (branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase), retinal degenerative diseases (and other diseases of the eye and retina; e.g., PDGF, endostatin and/or angiostatin for macular degeneration), diseases of solid organs such as brain (including Parkinson's Disease [GDNF], astrocytomas [endostatin, angiostatin and/or RNAi against VEGF], glioblastomas [endostatin, angiostatin and/or RNAi against VEGF]), liver (RNAi such as siRNA or shRNA, microRNA or antisense RNA for hepatitis B and/or hepatitis C genes), kidney, heart including congestive heart failure or peripheral artery disease (PAD) (e.g., by delivering protein phosphatase inhibitor I [I-1], phospholamban, sarcoplasmic endoreticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase [serca2a], zinc finger proteins that regulate the phospholamban gene, Pim-1, PGC-1α, SOD-1, SOD-2, ECF-SOD, kallikrein, thymosin-β4, hypoxia-inducible transcription factor [HIF], βarkct, β2-adrenergic receptor, β2-adrenergic receptor kinase [βARK], phosphoinositide-3 kinase [PI3 kinase], calsarcin, an angiogenic factor, S100A1, parvalbumin, adenylyl cyclase type 6, a molecule that effects G-protein coupled receptor kinase type 2 knockdown such as a truncated constitutively active bARKct, an inhibitory RNA [e.g., RNAi, antisense RNA or microRNA] against phospholamban; phospholamban inhibitory or dominant-negative molecules such as phospholamban S16E, etc.), arthritis (insulin-like growth factors), joint disorders (insulin-like growth factors), intimal hyperplasia (e.g., by delivering enos, inos), improve survival of heart transplants (superoxide dismutase), AIDS (soluble CD4), muscle wasting (insulin-like growth factor I, myostatin pro-peptide, an anti-apoptotic factor, follistatin), limb ischemia (VEGF, FGF, PGC-1α, EC-SOD, HIF), kidney deficiency (erythropoietin), anemia (erythropoietin), arthritis (anti-inflammatory factors such as IRAP and TNFα soluble receptor), hepatitis (α-interferon), LDL receptor deficiency (LDL receptor), hyperammonemia (ornithine transcarbamylase), spinal cerebral ataxias including SCA1, SCA2 and SCA3, phenylketonuria (phenylalanine hydroxylase), autoimmune diseases, and the like. The invention can further be used following organ transplantation to increase the success of the transplant and/or to reduce the negative side effects of organ transplantation or adjunct therapies (e.g., by administering immunosuppressant agents or inhibitory nucleic acids to block cytokine production). As another example, bone morphogenic proteins (including RANKL and/or VEGF) can be administered with a bone allograft, for example, following a break or surgical removal in a cancer patient.

Exemplary lysosomal storage diseases that can be treated according to the present invention include without limitation: Hurler's Syndrome (MPS IH), Scheie's Syndrome (MPS IS), and Hurler-Scheie Syndrome (MPS IH/S) (α-L-iduronidase); Hunter's Syndrome (MPS II) (iduronate sulfate sulfatase); Sanfilippo A Syndrome (MPS IIIA) (Heparan-S-sulfate sulfaminidase), Sanfilippo B Syndrome (MPS IIIB) (N-acetyl-D-g lucosaminidase), Sanfilippo C Syndrome (MPS IIIC) (Acetyl-CoA-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase), Sanfilippo Syndrome (MPS IIID) (N-acetyl-glucosaminine-6-sulfate sulfatase); Morquio A disease (MPS IVA) (Galactosamine-6-sulfate sulfatase), Morquio B disease (MPS IV B) (β-Galactosidase); Maroteaux-Imay disease (MPS VI) (arylsulfatase B); Sly Syndrome (MPS VII) (β-glucuronidase); hyaluronidase deficiency (MPS IX) (hyaluronidase); sialidosis (mucolipidosis I), mucolipidosis II (I-Cell disease) (N-actylglucos-aminyl-1-phosphotransferase catalytic subunit), mucolipidosis III (pseudo-Hurler polydystrophy) (N-acetylglucos-aminyl-1-phosphotransferase; type IIIA [catalytic subunit] and type IIIC [substrate recognition subunit]); GM1 gangliosidosis (ganglioside β-galactosidase), GM2 gangliosidosis Type I (Tay-Sachs disease) (β-hexaminidase A), GM2 gangliosidosis type II (Sandhoff's disease) (β-hexosaminidase B); Niemann-Pick disease (Types A and B) (sphingomyelinase); Gaucher's disease (glucocerebrosidase); Farber's disease (ceraminidase); Fabry's disease (α-galactosidase A); Krabbe's disease (galactosylceramide β-galactosidase); metachromatic leukodystrophy (arylsulfatase A); lysosomal acid lipase deficiency including Wolman's disease (lysosomal acid lipase); Batten disease (juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis) (lysosomal trans-membrane CLN3 protein) sialidosis (neuraminidase 1); galactosialidosis (Goldberg's syndrome) (protective protein/cathepsin A); α-mannosidosis (α-D-mannosidase); β-mannosidosis (β-D-mannosidosis); fucosidosis (α-D-fucosidase); aspartylglucosaminuria (N-Aspartylglucosaminidase); and sialuria (Na phosphate cotransporter).

Exemplary glycogen storage diseases that can be treated according to the present invention include, but are not limited to, Type Ia GSD (von Gierke disease) (glucose-6-phosphatase), Type Ib GSD (glucose-6-phophate translocase), Type Ic GSD (microsomal phosphate or pyrophosphate transporter), Type Id GSD (microsomal glucose transporter), Type II GSD including Pompe disease or infantile Type IIa GSD (lysosomal acid α-glucosidase) and Type IIb (Danon) (lysosomal membrane protein-2), Type IIIa and IIIb GSD (Debrancher enzyme; amyloglucosidase and oligoglucanotransferase), Type IV GSD (Andersen's disease) (branching enzyme), Type V GSD (McArdle disease) (muscle phosphorylase), Type VI GSD (Hers' disease) (liver phosphorylase), Type VII GSD (Tarui's disease) (phosphofructokinase), GSD Type VIII/IXa (X-linked phosphorylase kinase), GSD Type IXb (Liver and muscle phosphorylase kinase), GSD Type IXc (liver phosphorylase kinase), GSD Type IXd (muscle phosphorylase kinase), GSD O (glycogen synthase), Fanconi-Bickel syndrome (glucose transporter-2), phosphoglucoisomerase deficiency, muscle phosphoglycerate kinase deficiency, phosphoglycerate mutase deficiency, fructose 1,6-diphosphatase deficiency, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase deficiency, and lactate dehydrogenase deficiency.

Nucleic acids and polypeptides that can be delivered to cardiac muscle include those that are beneficial in the treatment of damaged, degenerated or atrophied cardiac muscle and/or congenital cardiac defects. For example, angiogenic factors useful for facilitating vascularization in the treatment of heart disease include but are not limited to vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), VEGF II, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, VEGF-E, VEGF₁₂₁, VEGF₁₃₈, VEGF₁₄₅, VEGF₁₆₅, VEGF₁₈₉, VEGF₂₀₆, hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF 1α), endothelial NO synthase (eNOS), iNOS, VEFGR-1 (Flt1), VEGFR-2 (KDR/Flk1), VEGFR-3 (Flt4), angiogenin, epidermal growth factor (EGF), angiopoietin, platelet-derived growth factor, angiogenic factor, transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), vascular permeability factor (VPF), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-3 (IL-3), interleukin-8 (IL-8), platelet-derived endothelial growth factor (PD-EGF), granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), scatter factor (SF), pleitrophin, proliferin, follistatin, placental growth factor (PIGF), midkine, platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF), fractalkine, ICAM-1, angiopoietin-1 and -2 (Ang1 and Ang2), Tie-2, neuropilin-1, ICAM-1, chemokines and cytokines that stimulate smooth muscle cell, monocyte, or leukocyte migration, anti-apoptotic peptides and proteins, fibroblast growth factors (FGF), FGF-1, FGF-1b, FGF-1c, FGF-2, FGF-2b, FGF-2c, FGF-3, FGF-3b, FGF-3c, FGF-4, FGF-5, FGF-7, FGF-9, acidic FGF, basic FGF, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), IGF-2, early growth response factor-1 (EGR-1), ETS-1, human tissue kallikrein (HK), matrix metalloproteinase, chymase, urokinase-type plasminogen activator and heparinase. (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application No. 20060287259 and U.S. Patent Application No. 20070059288).

The most common congenital heart disease found in adults is bicuspid aortic valve, whereas atrial septal defect is responsible for 30-40% of congenital heart disease seen in adults. The most common congenital cardiac defect observed in the pediatric population is ventricular septal defect. Other congenital heart diseases include Eisenmenger's syndrome, patent ductus arteriosus, pulmonary stenosis, coarctation of the aorta, transposition of the great arteries, tricuspid atresia, univentricular heart, Ebstein's anomaly, and double-outlet right ventricle. A number of studies have identified putative genetic loci associated with one or more of these congenital heart diseases. For example, the putative gene(s) for congenital heart disease associated with Down syndrome is 21q22.2-q22.3, between ETS2 and MX1. Similarly, most cases of DiGeorge syndrome result from a deletion of chromosome 22q11.2 (the DiGeorge syndrome chromosome region, or DGCR). Several genes are lost in this deletion including the putative transcription factor TUPLE1. This deletion is associated with a variety of phenotypes, e.g., Shprintzen syndrome; conotruncal anomaly face (or Takao syndrome); and isolated outflow tract defects of the heart including Tetralogy of Fallot, truncus arteriosus, and interrupted aortic arch. All of the foregoing disorders can be treated according to the present invention.

Other significant diseases of the heart and vascular system are also believed to have a genetic, typically polygenic, etiological component. These diseases include, for example, hypoplastic left heart syndrome, cardiac valvular dysplasia, Pfeiffer cardiocranial syndrome, oculofaciocardiodental syndrome, Kapur-Toriello syndrome, Sonoda syndrome, Ohdo Blepharophimosis syndrome, heart-hand syndrome, Pierre-Robin syndrome, Hirschsprung disease, Kousseff syndrome, Grange occlusive arterial syndrome, Kearns-Sayre syndrome, Kartagener syndrome, Alagille syndrome, Ritscher-Schinzel syndrome, Ivemark syndrome, Young-Simpson syndrome, hemochromatosis, Holzgreve syndrome, Barth syndrome, Smith-Lemli-Opitz s yndrome, glycogen storage disease, Gaucher-like disease, Fabry disease, Lowry-Maclean syndrome, Rett syndrome, Opitz syndrome, Marfan syndrome, Miller-Dieker lissencephaly syndrome, mucopolysaccharidosis, Bruada syndrome, humerospinal dysostosis, Phaver syndrome, McDonough syndrome, Marfanoid hypermobility syndrome, atransferrinemia, Cornelia de Lange syndrome, Leopard syndrome, Diamond-Blackfan anemia, Steinfeld syndrome, progeria, and Williams-Beuren syndrome. All of these disorders can be treated according to the present invention.

Anti-apoptotic factors can be delivered to skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle to treat muscle wasting diseases, limb ischemia, cardiac infarction, heart failure, coronary artery disease and/or type I or type II diabetes.

Nucleic acids that can be delivered to skeletal muscle include those that are beneficial in the treatment of damaged, degenerated and/or atrophied skeletal muscle. The genetic defects that cause muscular dystrophy are known for many forms of the disease. These defective genes either fail to produce a protein product, produce a protein product that fails to function properly, or produce a dysfunctional protein product that interferes with the proper function of the cell. The heterologous nucleic acid may encode a therapeutically functional protein or a polynucleotide that inhibits production or activity of a dysfunctional protein. Polypeptides that may be expressed from delivered nucleic acids, or inhibited by delivered nucleic acids (e.g., by delivering RNAi, microRNA or antisense RNA), include without limitation dystrophin, a mini-dystrophin or a micro-dystrophin (Duchene's and Becker MD); dystrophin-associated glycoproteins β-sarcoglycan (limb-girdle MD 2E), δ-sarcoglycan (limb-girdle MD 2 2F), α-sarcoglycan (limb girdle MD 2D) and γ-sarcoglycan (limb-girdle MD 2C), utrophin, calpain (autosomal recessive limb-girdle MD type 2A), caveolin-3 (autosomal-dominant limb-girdle MD), laminin-alpha2 (merosin-deficient congenital MD), miniagrin (laminin-alpha2 deficient congenital MD), fukutin (Fukuyama type congenital MD), emerin (Emery-Dreifuss MD), myotilin, lamin A/C, calpain-3, dysferlin, and/or telethonin. Further, the heterologous nucleic acid can encode mir-1, mir-133, mir-206, mir-208 or an antisense RNA, RNAi (e.g., siRNA or shRNA) or microRNA to induce exon skipping in a defective dystrophin gene.

In particular embodiments, the nucleic acid is delivered to tongue muscle (e.g., to treat dystrophic tongue). Methods of delivering to the tongue can be by any method known in the art including direct injection, oral administration, topical administration to the tongue, intravenous administration, intra-articular administration and the like.

The foregoing proteins can also be administered to diaphragm muscle to treat muscular dystrophy.

Alternatively, a gene transfer vector may be administered that encodes any other therapeutic polypeptide.

In particular embodiments, a virus vector according to the present invention is used to deliver a nucleic acid of interest as described herein to skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle, for example, to treat a disorder associated with one or more of these tissues such as muscular dystrophy, heart disease (including PAD and congestive heart failure), and the like.

Gene transfer has substantial potential use in understanding and providing therapy for disease states. There are a number of inherited diseases in which defective genes are known and have been cloned. In general, the above disease states fall into two classes: deficiency states, usually of enzymes, which are generally inherited in a recessive manner, and unbalanced states, which may involve regulatory or structural proteins, and which are typically inherited in a dominant manner. For deficiency state diseases, gene transfer can be used to bring a normal gene into affected tissues for replacement therapy, as well as to create animal models for the disease using inhibitory RNA such as RNAi (e.g., siRNA or shRNA), microRNA or antisense RNA. For unbalanced disease states, gene transfer can be used to create a disease state in a model system, which can then be used in efforts to counteract the disease state. Thus, the virus vectors according to the present invention permit the treatment of genetic diseases. As used herein, a disease state is treated by partially or wholly remedying the deficiency or imbalance that causes the disease or makes it more severe. The use of site-specific recombination of nucleic sequences to cause mutations or to correct defects is also possible.

The virus vectors according to the present invention may also be employed to provide an antisense nucleic acid or inhibitory RNA (e.g., microRNA or RNAi such as a siRNA or shRNA) to a cell in vitro or in vivo. Expression of the inhibitory RNA in the target cell diminishes expression of a particular protein(s) by the cell. Accordingly, inhibitory RNA may be administered to decrease expression of a particular protein in a subject in need thereof. Inhibitory RNA may also be administered to cells in vitro to regulate cell physiology, e.g., to optimize cell or tissue culture systems.

Further, the virus vectors according to the present invention find further use in diagnostic and screening methods, whereby a gene of interest is transiently or stably expressed in a cell culture system, or alternatively, a transgenic animal model. The invention can also be practiced to deliver a nucleic acid for the purposes of protein production, e.g., for laboratory, industrial or commercial purposes.

As a further aspect, the virus vectors of the present invention may be used to produce an immune response in a subject. According to this embodiment, a virus vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding an immunogen may be administered to a subject, and an active immune response (optionally, a protective immune response) is mounted by the subject against the immunogen. Immunogens are as described hereinabove.

Alternatively, the virus vector may be administered to a cell ex vivo and the altered cell is administered to the subject. The heterologous nucleic acid is introduced into the cell, and the cell is administered to the subject, where the heterologous nucleic acid encoding the immunogen is optionally expressed and induces an immune response in the subject against the immunogen. In particular embodiments, the cell is an antigen-presenting cell (e.g., a dendritic cell).

An “active immune response” or “active immunity” is characterized by “participation of host tissues and cells after an encounter with the immunogen. It involves differentiation and proliferation of immunocompetent cells in lymphoreticular tissues, which lead to synthesis of antibody or the development of cell-mediated reactivity, or both.” Herbert B. Herscowitz, Immunophysiology: Cell Function and Cellular Interactions in Antibody Formation, in IMMUNOLOGY: BASIC PROCESSES 117 (Joseph A. Bellanti ed., 1985). Alternatively stated, an active immune response is mounted by the host after exposure to immunogens by infection or by vaccination. Active immunity can be contrasted with passive immunity, which is acquired through the “transfer of preformed substances (antibody, transfer factor, thymic graft, interleukin-2) from an actively immunized host to a non-immune host.” Id.

A “protective” immune response or “protective” immunity as used herein indicates that the immune response confers some benefit to the subject in that it prevents or reduces the incidence of disease. Alternatively, a protective immune response or protective immunity may be useful in the treatment of disease, in particular cancer or tumors (e.g., by causing regression of a cancer or tumor and/or by preventing metastasis and/or by preventing growth of metastatic nodules). The protective effects may be complete or partial, as long as the benefits of the treatment outweigh any disadvantages thereof.

The virus vectors of the present invention may also be administered for cancer immunotherapy by administration of a viral vector expressing a cancer cell antigen (or an immunologically similar molecule) or any other immunogen that produces an immune response against a cancer cell. To illustrate, an immune response may be produced against a cancer cell antigen in a subject by administering a viral vector comprising a heterologous nucleotide sequence encoding the cancer cell antigen, for example to treat a patient with cancer. The virus vector may be administered to a subject in vivo or by using ex vivo methods, as described herein.

As used herein, the term “cancer” encompasses tumor-forming cancers. Likewise, the term “cancerous tissue” encompasses tumors. A “cancer cell antigen” encompasses tumor antigens.

The term “cancer” has its understood meaning in the art, for example, an uncontrolled growth of tissue that has the potential to spread to distant sites of the body (i.e., metastasize). Exemplary cancers include, but are not limited to, leukemia, lymphoma (e.g., Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas), colorectal cancer, renal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, testicular cancer, ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, cervical cancer, brain cancer (e.g., gliomas and glioblastoma), bone cancer, sarcoma, melanoma, head and neck cancer, esophageal cancer, thyroid cancer, and the like. In embodiments of the invention, the invention is practiced to treat and/or prevent tumor-forming cancers.

The term “tumor” is also understood in the art, for example, as an abnormal mass of undifferentiated cells within a multicellular organism. Tumors can be malignant or benign. In representative embodiments, the methods disclosed herein are used to prevent and treat malignant tumors.

Cancer cell antigens have been described hereinabove. By the terms “treating cancer” or “treatment of cancer,” it is intended that the severity of the cancer is reduced or the cancer is prevented or at least partially eliminated. For example, in particular contexts, these terms indicate that metastasis of the cancer is prevented or reduced or at least partially eliminated. In further representative embodiments these terms indicate that growth of metastatic nodules (e.g., after surgical removal of a primary tumor) is prevented or reduced or at least partially eliminated. By the terms “prevention of cancer” or “preventing cancer” it is intended that the methods at least partially eliminate or reduce the incidence or onset of cancer. Alternatively stated, the onset or progression of cancer in the subject may be slowed, controlled, decreased in likelihood or probability, or delayed.

In particular embodiments, cells may be removed from a subject with cancer and contacted with a virus vector according to the present invention. The modified cell is then administered to the subject, whereby an immune response against the cancer cell antigen is elicited. This method is particularly advantageously employed with immunocompromised subjects that cannot mount a sufficient immune response in vivo (i.e., cannot produce enhancing antibodies in sufficient quantities).

It is known in the art that immune responses may be enhanced by immunomodulatory cytokines (e.g., α-interferon, β-interferon, γ-interferon, ω-interferon, τ-interferon, interleukin-1α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-2, interleukin-3, interleukin-4, interleukin 5, interleukin-6, interleukin-7, interleukin-8, interleukin-9, interleukin-10, interleukin-11, interleukin 12, interleukin-13, interleukin-14, interleukin-18, B cell Growth factor, CD40 Ligand, tumor necrosis factor-α, tumor necrosis factor-β, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, and lymphotoxin). Accordingly, immunomodulatory cytokines (e.g., CTL inductive cytokines) may be administered to a subject in conjunction with the virus vectors.

Cytokines may be administered by any method known in the art. Exogenous cytokines may be administered to the subject, or alternatively, a nucleotide sequence ehcoding a cytokine may be delivered to the subject using a suitable vector, and the cytokine produced in vivo.

Recombinant virus vectors according to the present invention find use in both veterinary and medical applications. Suitable subjects include both avians and mammals. The term “avian” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, chickens, ducks, geese, quail, turkeys, pheasant, parrots, parakeets. The term “mammal” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, humans, primates non-human primates (e.g., monkeys and baboons), cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, cats, dogs, rabbits, rodents (e.g., rats, mice, hamsters, and the like), etc. Human subjects include neonates, infants, juveniles, and adults. Optionally, the subject is “in need of” the methods of the present invention, e.g., because the subject has or is believed at risk for a disorder including those described herein or that would benefit from the delivery of a nucleic acid including those described herein. For example, in particular embodiments, the subject has (or has had) or is at risk for a muscular dystrophy or heart disease (e.g., myocardial infarct, PAD, congestive heart failure, etc.). As a further option, the subject can be a laboratory animal and/or an animal model of disease.

In particular embodiments, the present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a virus vector of the invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and, optionally, other medicinal agents, pharmaceutical agents, stabilizing agents, buffers, carriers, adjuvants, diluents, etc. For injection, the carrier will typically be a liquid. For other methods of administration, the carrier may be either solid or liquid. For inhalation administration, the carrier will be respirable, and will preferably be in solid or liquid particulate form.

By “pharmaceutically acceptable” it is meant a material that is not toxic or otherwise undesirable, i.e., the material may be administered to a subject without causing any undesirable biological effects.

One aspect of the present invention is a method of transferring a nucleotide sequence to a cell in vitro. The virus vector may be introduced to the cells at the appropriate multiplicity of infection according to standard transduction methods appropriate for the particular target cells. Titers of the virus vector or capsid to administer can vary, depending upon the target cell type and number, and the particular virus vector or capsid, and can be determined by those of skill in the art without undue experimentation. In particular embodiments, at least about 10³ infectious units, more preferably at least about 10⁵ infectious units are introduced to the cell.

The cell(s) to be introduced the virus vector may be of any type, including but not limited to neural cells (including cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems, in particular, brain cells such as neurons, oligodendricytes, glial cells, astrocytes), lung cells, cells of the eye (including retinal cells, retinal pigment epithelium, and corneal cells), epithelial cells (e.g., gut and respiratory epithelial cells), skeletal muscle cells (including myoblasts, myotubes and myofibers), diaphragm muscle cells, dendritic cells, pancreatic cells (including islet cells), hepatic cells, a cell of the gastrointestinal tract (including smooth muscle cells, epithelial cells), heart cells (including cardiomyocytes), bone cells (e.g., bone marrow stem cells), hematopoietic stem cells, spleen cells, keratinocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, prostate cells, joint cells (including, e.g., cartilage, meniscus, synovium and bone marrow), germ cells, and the like. Alternatively, the cell may be any progenitor cell. As a further alternative, the cell can be a stem cell (e.g., neural stem cell, liver stem cell). As still a further alternative, the cell may be a cancer or tumor cell (cancers and tumors are described above). Moreover, the cells can be from any species of origin, as indicated above.

The virus vectors may be introduced to cells in vitro for the purpose of administering the modified cell to a subject. In particular embodiments, the cells have been removed from a subject, the virus vector is introduced therein, and the cells are then replaced back into the subject. Methods of removing cells from subject for treatment ex vivo, followed by introduction back into the subject are known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,346). Alternatively, the recombinant virus vector is introduced into cells from another subject, into cultured cells, or into cells from any other suitable source, and the cells are administered to a subject in need thereof.

Suitable cells for ex vivo gene therapy are as described above. Dosages of the cells to administer to a subject will vary upon the age, condition and species of the subject, the type of cell, the nucleic acid being expressed by the cell, the mode of administration, and the like. Typically, at least about 10² to about 10⁸ or about 10³ to about 10⁶ cells will be administered per dose in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In particular embodiments, the cells transduced with the virus vector are administered to the subject in an effective amount in combination with a pharmaceutical carrier.

In some embodiments, cells that have been transduced with the virus vector may be administered to elicit an immunogenic response against the delivered polypeptide (e.g., expressed as a transgene or in the capsid). Typically, a quantity of cells expressing an effective amount of the polypeptide in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier is administered. Optionally, the dosage is sufficient to produce a protective immune response (as defined above). The degree of protection conferred need not be complete or permanent, as long as the benefits of administering the immunogenic polypeptide outweigh any disadvantages thereof.

A further aspect of the invention is a method of administering the virus vectors or capsids of the invention to subjects. In particular embodiments, the method comprises a method of delivering a nucleic acid of interest to an animal subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of a virus vector according to the invention to an animal subject. Administration of the virus vectors of the present invention to a human subject or an animal in need thereof can be by any means known in the art. Optionally, the virus vector is delivered in an effective dose in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The virus vectors of the invention can further be administered to a subject to elicit an immunogenic response (e.g., as a vaccine). Typically, vaccines of the present invention comprise an effective amount of virus in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Optionally, the dosage is sufficient to produce a protective immune response (as defined above). The degree of protection conferred need not be complete or permanent, as long as the benefits of administering the immunogenic polypeptide outweigh any disadvantages thereof. Subjects and immunogens are as described above.

Dosages of the virus vectors to be administered to a subject will depend upon the mode of administration, the disease or condition to be treated, the individual subject's condition, the particular virus vector, and the nucleic acid to be delivered, and can be determined in a routine manner. Exemplary doses for achieving therapeutic effects are virus titers of at least about 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, 10⁸, 10⁹, 10¹⁰, 10¹¹, 10¹², 10³, 10¹⁴, 10¹⁵ transducing units or more, preferably about 10⁷ or10⁸⁻10¹², 10¹³ or 10¹⁴ transducing units, yet more preferably about 10¹² transducing units.

In particular embodiments, more than one administration (e.g., two, three, four or more administrations) may be employed to achieve the desired level of gene expression over a period of various intervals, e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.

Exemplary modes of administration include oral, rectal, transmucosal, topical, intranasal, inhalation (e.g., via an aerosol), buccal (e.g., sublingual), vaginal, intrathecal, intraocular, transdermal, in utero (or in ovo), parenteral (e.g., intravenous, subcutaneous, intradermal, intramuscular [including administration to skeletal, diaphragm and/or cardiac muscle], intradermal, intrapleural, intracerebral, and intraarticular), topical (e.g., to both skin and mucosal surfaces, including airway surfaces, and transdermal administration), intro-lymphatic, and the like, as well as direct tissue or organ injection (e.g., to liver, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, diaphragm muscle or brain). Administration can also be to a tumor (e.g., in or a near a tumor or a lymph node). The most suitable route in any given case will depend on the nature and severity of the condition being treated and on the nature of the particular vector that is being used.

Administration to skeletal muscle according to the present invention includes but is not limited to administration to skeletal muscles in the limbs (e.g., upper arm, lower arm, upper leg, and/or lower leg), back, neck, head (e.g., tongue), thorax, abdomen, pelvis/perineum, and/or digits. Suitable skeletal muscle tissues include but are not limited to abductor digiti minimi (in the hand), abductor digiti minimi (in the foot), abductor hallucis, abductor ossis metatarsi quinti, abductor pollicis brevis, abductor pollicis longus, adductor brevis, adductor hallucis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, adductor pollicis, anconeus, anterior scalene, articularis genus, biceps brachii, biceps femoris, brachialis, brachioradialis, buccinator, coracobrachialis, corrugator supercilii, deltoid, depressor anguli oris, depressor labii inferioris, digastric, dorsal interossei (in the hand), dorsal interossei (in the foot), extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digiti minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor digitorum brevis, extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis brevis, extensor hallucis longus, extensor indicis, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digiti minimi brevis (in the hand), flexor digiti minimi brevis (in the foot), flexor digitorum brevis, flexor digitorum longus, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor hallucis brevis, flexor hallucis longus, flexor pollicis brevis, flexor pollicis longus, frontalis, gastrocnemius, geniohyoid, gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, gracilis, iliocostalis cervicis, iliocostalis lumborum, iliocostalis thoracis, illiacus, inferior gemellus, inferior oblique, inferior rectus, infraspinatus, interspinalis, intertransversi, lateral pterygoid, lateral rectus, latissimus dorsi, levator anguli oris, levator labii superioris, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, levator palpebrae superioris, levator scapulae, long rotators, longissimus capitis, longissimus cervicis, longissimus thoracis, longus capitis, longus colli, lumbricals (in the hand), lumbricals (in the foot), masseter, medial pterygoid, medial rectus, middle scalene, multifidus, mylohyoid, obliquus capitis inferior, obliquus capitis superior, obturator externus, obturator internus, occipitalis, omohyoid, opponens digiti minimi, opponens pollicis, orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, palmar interossei, palmaris brevis, palmaris longus, pectineus, pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, peroneus brevis, peroneus longus, peroneus tertius, piriformis, plantar interossei, plantaris, platysma, popliteus, posterior scalene, pronator quadratus, pronator teres, psoas major, quadratus femoris, quadratus plantae, rectus capitis anterior, rectus capitis lateralis, rectus capitis posterior major, rectus capitis posterior minor, rectus femoris, rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, risorius, sartorius, scalenus minimus, semimembranosus, semispinalis capitis, semispinalis cervicis, semispinalis thoracis, semitendinosus, serratus anterior, short rotators, soleus, spinalis capitis, spinalis cervicis, spinalis thoracis, splenius capitis, splenius cervicis, sternocleidomastoid, sternohyoid, sternothyroid, stylohyoid, subclavius, subscapularis, superior gemellus, superior oblique, superior rectus, supinator, supraspinatus, temporalis, tensor fascia lata, teres major, teres minor, thoracis, thyrohyoid, tibialis anterior, tibialis posterior, trapezius, triceps brachii, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, zygomaticus major, and zygomaticus minor and any other suitable skeletal muscle as known in the art. In particular embodiments, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

The virus vector can be delivered to skeletal muscle by any suitable method including without limitation intravenous administration, intra-arterial administration, intraperitoneal administration, isolated limb perfusion (of leg and/or arm; see, e.g. Arruda et al., (2005) Blood 105: 3458-3464), and/or direct intramuscular injection.

Administration to cardiac muscle includes without limitation administration to the left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle and/or septum. The virus vector can be delivered to cardiac muscle by any method known in the art including, e.g., intravenous administration, intra-arterial administration such as intra-aortic administration, direct cardiac injection (e.g., into left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle), and/or coronary artery perfusion. In particular embodiments, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

Administration to diaphragm muscle can be by any suitable method including intravenous administration, intra-arterial administration, and/or intra-peritoneal administration. In particular embodiments, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

Delivery to any of these tissues can also be achieved by delivering a depot comprising the virus vector, which can be implanted into the skeletal, cardiac and/or diaphragm muscle tissue or the tissue can be contacted with a film or other matrix comprising the virus vector. Examples of such implantable matrices or substrates are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,201,898).

In particular embodiments, a virus vector according to the present invention is administered to skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle (e.g., to treat muscular dystrophy, heart disease [for example, PAD or congestive heart failure]). Optionally, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

The invention can be used to treat disorders of skeletal, cardiac and/or diaphragm muscle. Alternatively, the invention can be practiced to deliver a nucleic acid to skeletal, cardiac and/or diaphragm muscle, which is used as a platform for production of a protein product (e.g., an enzyme) or non-translated RNA (e.g., RNAi, microRNA, antisense RNA) that normally circulates in the blood or for systemic delivery to other tissues to treat a disorder (e.g., a metabolic disorder, such as diabetes (e.g., insulin), hemophilia (e.g., Factor IX or Factor VIII), or a lysosomal storage disorder (such as Gaucher's disease [glucocerebrosidase], Pompe disease [lysosomal acid α-glucosidase] or Fabry disease [α-galactosidase A]) or a glycogen storage disorder (such as Pompe disease [lysosomal acid a glucosidase]). Other suitable proteins for treating metabolic disorders are described above.

In a representative embodiment, the invention provides a method of treating muscular dystrophy in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of a virus vector of the invention to a mammalian subject, wherein the virus vector comprises a heterologous nucleic acid effective to treat muscular dystrophy. In an exemplary embodiment, the method comprises: administering an effective amount of a virus vector of the invention to a mammalian subject, wherein the virus vector comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding dystrophin, a mini-dystrophin, a micro-dystrophin, utrophin, mini-utrophin, laminin-α2, mini-agrin, Fukutin-related protein, follistatin, dominant negative myostatin, α-sarcoglycan, β-sarcoglycan, γ-sarcoglycan, δ-sarcoglycan, IGF-1, myostatin pro-peptide, activin type II soluble receptor, anti-inflammatory polypeptides such as the Ikappa B dominant mutant, sarcospan, antibodies or antibody fragments against myostatin or myostatin propeptide, or an inhibitory RNA (e.g., antisense RNA, microRNA or RNAi) against myostatin, mir-1, mir-133, mir-206, mir-208 or an inhibitory RNA (e.g., microRNA, RNAi or antisense RNA) to induce exon skipping in a defective dystrophin gene. In particular embodiments, the virus vector can be administered to skeletal, diaphragm and/or cardiac muscle as described elsewhere herein. Optionally, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

The invention further encompasses a method of treating a metabolic disorder in a subject in need thereof. In representative embodiments, the method comprises; administering an effective amount of a virus vector of the invention to skeletal muscle of a subject, wherein the virus vector comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide, wherein the metabolic disorder is a result of a deficiency and/or defect in the polypeptide. Illustrative metabolic disorders and heterologous nucleic acids encoding polypeptides are described herein. Optionally, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV). As a further option, the heterologous nucleic acid can encode a secreted protein.

The invention can also be practiced to produce inhibitory RNA (e.g., antisense RNA, microRNA or RNAi) for systemic delivery.

The invention also provides a method of treating congenital heart failure in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering an effective amount of a virus vector of the invention to a mammalian subject, wherein the virus vector comprises a heterologous nucleic acid effective to treat congenital heart failure. In representative embodiments, the method comprises administering an effective amount of a virus vector of the invention to a mammalian subject, wherein the virus vector comprises a heterologous nucleic acid encoding a sarcoplasmic endoreticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA2a), an angiogenic factor, phospholamban, PI3 kinase, calsarcan, a β -adrenergic receptor kinase (βARK), βARKct, inhibitor 1 of protein phosphatase 1, Pim-1, PGC-1α, SOD-1, SOD-2, EC-SOD, Kallikrein, HIF, thymosin-β4, S100A1, parvalbumin, adenylyl cyclase type 6, a molecule that effects G-protein coupled receptor kinase type 2 knockdown such as a truncated constitutively active bARKct; phospholamban inhibitory or dominant-negative molecules such as phospholamban S16E, mir-1, mir-133, mir-206, mir-208. Optionally, the virus vector comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of the M41 capsid (FIG. 3A-3C) or the H50 capsid (FIG. 3TT-3VV).

Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either as liquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution or suspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. Alternatively, one may administer the virus vector in a local rather than systemic manner, for example, in a depot or sustained-release formulation. Further, the virus vector can be delivered dried to a surgically implantable matrix such as a bone graft substitute, a suture, a stent, and the like (e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,201,898).

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for oral administration can be presented in discrete units, such as capsules, cachets, lozenges, or tablets, each containing a predetermined amount of the composition of this invention; as a powder or granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion. Oral delivery can be performed by complexing a virus vector of the present invention to a carrier capable of withstanding degradation by digestive enzymes in the gut of an animal. Examples of such carriers include plastic capsules or tablets, as known in the art. Such formulations are prepared by any suitable method of pharmacy, which includes the step of bringing into association the composition and a suitable carrier (which may contain one or more accessory ingredients as noted above). In general, the pharmaceutical composition according to embodiments of the present invention are prepared by uniformly and intimately admixing the composition with a liquid or finely divided solid carrier, or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the resulting mixture. For example, a tablet can be prepared by compressing or molding a powder or granules containing the composition, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets are prepared by compressing, in a suitable machine, the composition in a free-flowing form, such as a powder or granules optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, and/or surface active/dispersing agent(s). Molded tablets are made by molding, in a suitable machine, the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid binder.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for buccal (sub-lingual) administration include lozenges comprising the composition of this invention in a flavored base, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth; and pastilles comprising the composition in an inert base such as gelatin and glycerin or sucrose and acacia.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for parenteral administration can comprise sterile aqueous and non-aqueous injection solutions of the composition of this invention, which preparations are optionally isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. These preparations can contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes, which render the composition isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient. Aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions, solutions and emulsions can include suspending agents and thickening agents. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils such as olive oil, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water, alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, including saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringer's, or fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles include fluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as those based on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. Preservatives and other additives may also be present such as, for example, antimicrobials, anti-oxidants, chelating agents, and inert gases and the like.

The compositions can be presented in unit\dose or multi-dose containers, for example, in sealed ampoules and vials, and can be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, saline or water-for-injection immediately prior to use.

Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions can be prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets of the kind previously described. For example, an injectable, stable, sterile composition of this invention in a unit dosage form in a sealed container can be provided. The composition can be provided in the form of a lyophilizate, which can be reconstituted with a suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to form a liquid composition suitable for injection into a subject. The unit dosage form can be from about 1 μg to about 10 grams of the composition of this invention. When the composition is substantially water-insoluble, a sufficient amount of emulsifying agent, which is physiologically acceptable, can be included in sufficient quantity to emulsify the composition in an aqueous carrier. One such useful emulsifying agent is phosphatidyl choline.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for rectal administration can be presented as unit dose suppositories. These can be prepared by admixing the composition with one or more conventional solid carriers, such as for example, cocoa butter and then shaping the resulting mixture.

Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention suitable for topical application to the skin can take the form of an ointment, cream, lotion, paste, gel, spray, aerosol, or oil. Carriers that can be used include, but are not limited to, petroleum jelly, lanoline, polyethylene glycols, alcohols, transdermal enhancers, and combinations of two or more thereof. In some embodiments, for example, topical delivery can be performed by mixing a pharmaceutical composition of the present invention with a lipophilic reagent (e.g., DMSO) that is capable of passing into the skin.

Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for transdermal administration can be in the form of discrete patches adapted to remain in intimate contact with the epidermis of the subject for a prolonged period of time. Compositions suitable for transdermal administration can also be delivered by iontophoresis (see, for example, Pharmaceutical Research 3:318 (1986)) and typically take the form of an optionally buffered aqueous solution of the composition of this invention. Suitable formulations can comprise citrate or bis\tris buffer (pH 6) or ethanol/water and can contain from 0.1 to 0.2M active ingredient.

The virus vectors disclosed herein may be administered to the lungs of a subject by any suitable means, for example, by administering an aerosol suspension of respirable particles comprised of the virus vectors, which the subject inhales. The respirable particles may be liquid or solid. Aerosols of liquid particles comprising the virus vectors may be produced by any suitable means, such as with a pressure-driven aerosol nebulizer or an ultrasonic nebulizer, as is known to those of skill in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,501,729. Aerosols of solid particles comprising the virus vectors may likewise be produced with any solid particulate medicament aerosol generator, by techniques known in the pharmaceutical art.

III. Directed Evolution and In Vivo Panning for Virus Vectors Comprising Scrambled AAV Capsids.

The present invention also encompasses novel methods for creating a pool of viruses comprising scrambled AAV capsids (e.g., AAV particles comprising the scrambled AAV capsids) and then selecting in vivo for scrambled capsids/viruses having one or more desired characteristics. Non-limiting examples of such characteristics include tropism profile, the ability to evade neutralizing antibodies, and improved intracellular trafficking.

In a representative embodiment, the invention provides a method of identifying a virus vector (e.g., an AAV vector) or AAV capsid having a tropism profile of interest, the method comprising (a) providing a collection of virus vectors (e.g., AAV particles), wherein each AAV vector within the collection comprises: (i) an AAV capsid comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of capsid proteins generated by scrambling the capsid coding sequences of two or more different AAV, wherein the capsid amino acid sequences of the two or more different AAV differ by at least two amino acids; and (ii) a viral vector genome (e.g., an AAV vector genome) comprising: an AAV cap coding sequence encoding the AAV capsid of (i); an AAV rep coding sequence; and at least one terminal repeat (e.g., a 5′ and/or 3′ terminal repeat such as, for example, and AAV 5′ and/or 3′ terminal repeat) that functions with the Rep protein(s) encoded by the AAV rep coding sequence; wherein the AAV capsid encapsidates the vector genome; (b) administering the collection of virus vectors to a subject; (c) recovering a plurality of virus vectors as virions or as viral vector genomes each encoding an AAV capsid from a target tissue, thereby identifying a virus vector or AAV capsid having a tropism of interest.

The invention can also be practiced to identify in vivo a scrambled AAV capsid or virus particle comprising the same having the ability to evade neutralizing antibodies (e.g., neutralizing antibodies found in human serum). For example, in vivo screening for resistance to neutralizing antibodies can be carried out by injecting human IgGs (e.g., IVIG; a pool of human IgGs) into a subject (e.g., a non-human mammalian subject). The IVIG naturally contains a mixture of antibodies against all of the common AAVs seen by the human population. Alternatively, specific neutralizing antibody(ies) can be administered to the subject. The scrambled virus library is then injected into the subject and selection is carried out for viral genomes that enter the target tissue(s) of interest (e.g., heart, skeletal muscle, liver, etc). Those genomes that are isolated from the target tissue correspond to those capsids that are able to evade neutralization.

Thus, in representative embodiments, the invention provides a method of identifying a scrambled AAV capsid or virus vector (e.g., an AAV vector) comprising the same having the ability to evade neutralizing IgGs (e.g., neutralizing human IgGs), the method comprising (a) administering a pool of IgGs (e.g., human IgGs) to a mammalian subject; (b) providing a collection of scrambled virus vectors (e.g., scrambled AAV vectors), wherein each virus vector within the collection comprises: (i) an AAV capsid comprising a capsid protein generated by scrambling the capsid sequences of two or more different AAV, wherein the capsid amino acid sequences of the two or more different AAV differ by at least two amino acids; and (ii) a viral vector genome (e.g., an AAV vector genome) comprising: a cap coding sequence encoding the AAV capsid of (i); an AAV rep coding sequence; and at least one terminal repeat (e.g., a 5′ and/or 3′ terminal repeat such as for example, a 5′ and/or 3′ AAV terminal repeat) that functions with the Rep protein(s) encoded by the AAV rep coding sequence; wherein the AAV capsid encapsidates the virus vector genome; (c) administering the collection of virus vectors to a subject; (d) recovering a plurality of virus vectors as virions or as viral vector genomes each encoding an AAV capsid from a target tissue, thereby identifying a virus vector or AAV capsid having the ability to evade neutralizing IgGs (e.g., neutralizing human IgGs). In particular embodiments, the pool of IgGs are an IVIG preparation.

By “evade” neutralizing antibodies, it is intended that there is at least a partial reduction in neutralization as compared with a suitable control (e.g., a naturally occurring AAV such as AAV2, AAV8 or AAV9), but the degree of evasion or “resistance” need not be complete as long as there is some reduction in neutralization as compared with the control and as long as some of the vector is able to reach and transduce the target tissue.

In particular embodiments, the target tissue is skeletal muscle (as described above), liver, cardiac muscle, diaphragm muscle, kidney, liver, pancreas, spleen, the gastrointestinal tract, lung, joint tissue, tongue, ovary, testis, germ cells, cancer cells, or a combination of the foregoing.

The sequences of any combination of two or more AAV capsids, whether naturally-occurring or modified and whether now known or later discovered can be “scrambled” or “shuffled” to create a collection of AAV vectors comprising the scrambled capsids. In representative embodiments, the collection of AAV vectors comprises capsids generated by scrambling capsid sequences from two or more of the following: AAV1, AAV2, AAV3A, AAV3B, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8, AAV9, AAV10, AAV11, AAV12, avian AAV, bovine AAV, canine AAV, equine AAV, ovine AAV, goose AAV or snake AAV. As noted above, the collection of AAV capsids can further comprise non-naturally occurring AAV capsids, now known or later discovered. Such modifications include substitutions including substitutions of modified nucleic acids and/or amino acids, and deletions including truncations and/or insertions (including peptide display).

Further diversity among the scrambled capsids can be achieved by any method known in the art for introducing mutations into nucleic acid and/or amino acid sequences, e.g., using chemical mutagens, error-prone PCR, cassette mutagenesis, and the like.

In particular embodiments, the method is carried out as an iterative process, e.g., steps (a) through (c) are carried out for two or more iterative cycles. For example, one or more of the scrambled AAV capsid sequences identified in the first round of in vivo screening can be used as a starting point to create a second (or subsequent) collection of scrambled AAV capsids for in vivo selection.

Optionally, the in vivo selection methods can be combined with one or more rounds of in vitro selection to further optimize the vectors. For example, in vivo selection can be carried out to identify scrambled AAV capsids having a desired tropism profile and then in vitro selection can be used to identify those scrambled AAV capsids having the ability to evade neutralization by antibodies (e.g., serum antibodies found in the human population).

The collection of AAV particles can be administered to the subject by any suitable method. In particular embodiments, the collection is administered into the blood stream of the subject (e.g., intravenous or intra-articular).

Modes of administration and subjects are as described elsewhere herein.

The invention can be used to identify scrambled viruses or virus capsids having a desired tropism pattern or profile in vivo in a subject. Accordingly, in particular embodiments, the inventive methods comprise recovering AAV particles or viral genomes encoding the same from two or more target tissues and identifying scrambled viruses or scrambled AAV capsids having a desired tropism for the two or more target tissues. For example, in particular embodiments, a scrambled virus or scrambled AAV capsid having efficient tropism for skeletal muscle, diaphragm muscle and/or cardiac muscle and inefficient tropism for liver, gonads and/or stem cells is identified.

The target cell or tissue (or one of the target cells/tissues) can also be a cancer cell or tumor tissue. For example, the scrambled virus can be administered to an animal model of cancer and scrambled virus particles or viral genomes encoding the same are isolated from cancer cells or tumor. In representative embodiments, the animal model can be one that has an increased likelihood of forming cancers or tumors or can be a xenograft model in which human tumor cells are grafted into the animal.

Exemplary methods of DNA “scrambling, also called “shuffling,” “molecular breeding,” “fast forced evolution” and the like are known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,605,793; U.S. Pat. No. 6,165,793; U.S. Pat. No. 5,605,793; U.S. Pat. No. 6,117,679; Stemmer, (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 91:10747-10751; and Soong et al., (2000) Nature Genetics 25:436-439. Such methods have also been applied to directed evolution of viruses. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,096,548 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,596,539. In a representative embodiment, a collection of AAV capsid protein coding sequences (or portions thereof) are fragmented and recombined in vitro by homologous and/or non-homologous recombination to create a collection of “scrambled” AAV capsid proteins. Scrambled virus is generated in which each scrambled capsid packages a nucleic acid (e.g., an AAV genome) comprising the corresponding capsid coding sequence (i.e., encoding the capsid protein of the virus). The collection of scrambled viruses is administered to a subject and in vivo selection is carried out for a characteristic of interest. For example, scrambled virus can be isolated from one or more target tissues to identify those optimized capsid proteins having a desired tropism profile. The method can be carried out in iterative cycles to further optimize the capsid sequences.

Having described the present invention, the same will be explained in greater detail in the following examples, which are included herein for illustration purposes only, and which are not intended to be limiting to the invention.

EXAMPLES

The Examples below describe the modification of the AAV capsid gene by directed evolution to generate an optimized vector for systemic gene delivery to heart and skeletal muscle. DNA shuffling was used to modify the AAV capsid gene and an AAV library was constructed for screening against a mouse model. AAV variants enriched in mouse heart and skeletal muscle were isolated and characterized based on their tropism and neutralization properties. In general, this approach mimics the natural evolution of a virus in an animal model.

Example 1 Materials & Methods

Generation of Chimeric AAV Library with Shuffled Capsid Genes

For construction of random chimeric AAV capsid gene libraries, AAV serotypes 1, 2, 3B, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 were used as PCR templates. The capsid genes were amplified by primers CAP-5′ (5′-CCC-AAGCTTCGATCAACTACGCAGACAGGTACCAA-3′; SEQ ID NO:139) and CAP-3′ (5′-ATAAGAAT-GCGGCCGC-AGAGACCAAAGTTCAACTGAAACGA-3′; SEQ ID NO:140) and mixed in equal ratio for DNA shuffling (Soong et al., (2000) Nat Genet 25: 436-9). In brief, 4 μg of the DNA templates were treated by 0.04 U of DNase I at 15° C. briefly. DNA fragments in size of 300-1000 bp were purified by agarose gel electrophoresis, denatured, re-annealed and repaired by pfu DNA polymerase to reassemble random capsid genes. Amplification was done by use of pfu DNA polymerase and CAP5′/CAP3′ primers. The PCR program was 30 cycles of 94° C. 1 min, 60° C. 1 min and 72° C. 4.5 min. The PCR products were then digested with Hind III and Not I and ligated into a Hind III and Not I digested plasmid backbone containing AAV2 Rep gene and inverted terminal repeats. The random infectious plasmids library was obtained by transforming the above ligated DNA into DH10B E. coli cells. Random clones were picked for restriction enzyme analysis and replication and packaging viability in 293 cells. The shuffled infectious AAV library was finally produced using a self-packaging technique developed by Muller et al. (Nature Biotechnol. (2003) 21:1040-1046).

In vivo Biopanning of Mutant AAV Capsid Library in Mice

A dose of 5×10¹¹ vector genomes of the chimeric AAV library were injected into adult C57BL/6J mice via tail vein. Three days later, mice were sacrificed and perfused with PBS to remove the blood from tissues. The hind limb skeletal muscles and liver were collected for total DNA isolation. The capsid genes enriched in the muscle were retrieved by PCR amplification using primers Cap 5′ and Cap 3′ and the iProof DNA polymerase (Bio-Rad). The PCR products were digested with Hind III and Not I and cloned similarly as described in previous section. The 43 representative AAV capsid genotypes were identified from the reconstructed plasmid library by restriction analysis and mixed in equal ratio for production of a secondary AAV library as described earlier. This AAV library was again injected i.v. in mice for secondary screening and retrieval from muscle and liver. Random colonies were sequenced and compared for their tissue distribution.

Sequence and Structure Analyses of Modified AAV Capsid Genes

Identification and alignment of the capsid genes from the mouse tissues was done using Clustal X (Larkin et al. (2007) Clustal w and clustal x version 2.0. Bioinformatics 23: 2947-8).

Tissue Tropism of AAV Vectors in Mice After Systemic Administration

The M41 capsid gene was used to package CMV-luciferase, CB-LacZ or CMV-LacZ reporter vectors for comparison with the AAV9 or AAV6 packaged ones. 3×10¹¹ v.g. of reporter vectors containing CMV-luciferase or CB-LacZ genes were injected i.v. in 6 to 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice for systemic gene delivery and expression. The heart, skeletal muscle and main internal organs of mice were collected 2-weeks later. Reporter gene expression was monitored by luciferase assay (Luciferase Assay System; Promega) or β-gal assay (Galacto-Light Plus™ system; Applied Biosystems). Cryosectioning and X-gal staining were used to visualize cell that expressed the LacZ in the heart and muscle. Total DNA was extracted from mouse tissues for quantitative detection of vector genome copies by Taqman probes (Applied Biosystems) with a single-copy endogenous gene (glucagon gene) as the diploid cell number reference.

Transduction of Primary Cardiomyocytes or Skeletal Muscle by AAV Vectors

Rat neonatal cardiomyocytes were isolated and cultured as previously reported. 24 hr after pre-plating, rAAV9-, rM41- or rAAV6-CMV-lacZ vectors were inoculated onto the cardiomyocytes in infection multiplicity of 3000. Cells were fixed for X-gal staining or β-gal assay after another 96 hr to detect transgene expression. For skeletal muscle transduction, 50 μL of virus dilutes containing 5×10˜9 v.g. of rAAV vectors were intramuscularly injected into gastrocnemius muscles of adult 7-week-old C57BJ/6L mice. 14 days later muscle tissues were collected for detection of transgene expression by X-gal staining or β-gal assay. Vector genome distribution in cardiomyocytes or skeletal muscles was quantitated by real-time PCR as described.

Gene Transfer and Functional Assays in the Hamster Models

Tropism of the new vectors in hamsters was first investigated in the normal F1B hamsters. A dose of 10¹² vector genomes of M41-CMV-lacZ or AAV9-CMV-lacZ was administered into 2- to 3-month-old male F1B hamsters via the jugular vein. Three weeks later heart, skeletal muscles and the internal organs including the liver were collected for histological staining. The synthetic muscle-specific promoter (SYN) C5-12 was used to achieve strong and muscle-specific δ-SG transgene expression in the TO-2 hamsters (Zhu et al., (2005) Circulation 112: 2650-9). A dose of 10¹² vector genomes of the M41-SYN-δSG vectors were administered into 7-week-old male TO-2 hamsters intravenously with untreated TO-2 or with normal F1B hamsters as the control groups. Three days before and one month after vector administration, blood samples were collected from the hamsters by cardiac puncture. Sera were prepared for the creatine kinase (CK) activity assay (TECO Diagnostics). Four months after vector administration, the hamsters were subject to echocardiography analysis to assess their cardiac and whole-body muscle functions as reported (Zhu et al., (2005) Circulation 112: 2650-9). δ-SG expression was detected by immunofluorescence staining or Western blotting (Zhu et al., (2005) Circulation 112: 2650-9). H&E, Masson's trichrome and Von Kossa stainings of the heart tissues were used for histology, fibrosis and calcification respectively (Zhu et al., (2005) Circulation 112: 2650-9).

Example 2 Direct in vivo Panning of DNA-Shuffled AAV Library for Muscle-Targeting Capsids

We constructed a chimeric AAV library by DNA shuffling of the capsid genes of AAV1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9, in order to select for combinations of characteristics. The infectious AAV library with shuffled capsid genes was packaged by the method of Muller et al. (Nature Biotechnol. (2003) 21:1040-1046). DNA analysis by restriction digestions on randomly picked mutant AAV clones showed unique patterns and indicated that the vast majority were recombinants and viable in producing AAV particles (FIG. 1).

Although it is known to use in vitro cell culture systems to screen for desirable mutant AAVs, here we solely relied on a direct in vivo screening method, because no cell culture system could simultaneously mimic the in vivo conditions (e.g., the tight endothelial lining, the differentiated muscle cells and the liver, etc.). We used adult mice for in vivo biopanning of the AAV library. Following tail vein injection of a dose of 5×10¹¹ v.g. (viral genomes), the AAV cap genes that were enriched in the muscles were retrieved by PCR amplification. In the first round of in vivo screening, 43 distinct AAV clones were identified. They were mixed in equal ratio for secondary AAV library production and second-round in vivo screening. The clones enriched in skeletal muscle but scarce in the liver were further characterized.

A clone named M41 appeared 12 times in 79 randomly picked clones from the skeletal muscle pool but was absent in the liver pool (FIG. 2). Sequence alignment of its capsid amino acid sequence showed that it is a recombinant of four parental AAV serotypes, AAV1, 6, 7 and 8, with segments from AAV1, 8, and 7 in the N-terminal half of the capsid and AAV6, 1 and 6 in the C-terminal half (FIG. 3A). The sequence of the M41 capsid gene and amino acid sequence are depicted in FIGS. 3B and 3C, respectively. The phylogenetic map, capsid coding and amino acid sequences of other AAV mutants isolated from skeletal muscle and heart libraries are depicted in FIGS. 3D-3EEE.

Example 3 M41 Vector Preferentially Transduces Myocardium After Systemic Administration

We next investigated systemic gene delivery efficiency and tissue tropism of AAVM41. The luciferase reporter gene was packaged into viral capsids of M41, AAV9, and AAV6 for a side-by-side comparison in vivo. At 2 weeks post i.v. injection in young adult C57BJ/6L mice (6-8 wk), luciferase activities and vector DNA copy numbers in various tissues were analyzed. Consistent with previous reports (Inagaki et al. (2006) Mol Ther 14: 45-53), the AAV9 vector efficiently transduced mouse heart, skeletal muscles, and particularly the liver, which had the highest luciferase activity (FIG. 4A) and vector DNA copy numbers (FIG. 4B). Similar to AAV9, the M41 vector also transduced the heart efficiently with slightly lower luciferase activity and vector copy numbers (FIG. 4B). In contrast, M41 showed dramatically reduced gene transfer in the liver, with the luciferase activity 81.1 fold lower and DNA copy number 11.3 fold lower than AAV9. However, AAVM41 gene transfer in the skeletal muscles, except in the tongue, was also significantly lower than AAV9 (FIG. 4A). Interestingly, although the liver had higher DNA copy numbers (FIG. 4B), the heart showed the highest luciferase activity among all tissues examined in M41 injected mice (FIG. 4A), suggesting differential intracellular trafficking and uncoating processes of AAVM41 in these two tissues.

Similar side-by-side comparison between AAVM41 and AAV6 at 2 weeks after i.v. injection revealed higher gene transfer by AAVM41 in all skeletal muscles, and dramatically higher gene transfer (>13 fold) in the heart (FIG. 4C), but more than 50% reduction in the liver. Interestingly, although AAV6 had significantly higher vector DNA copy numbers than AAVM41 in some muscle tissues such as the tibialis anterior and quadriceps (Ta and Qd in FIG. 4D), the gene expression levels were much lower. The inconsistency in vector genome quantity and transgene expression between these two viruses suggests a more complex difference in vector bioavailability in the muscle tissues, such as transcytosis through endothelial lining and preferential infection of muscle rather than non-muscle cells.

Since one aim of this study was to reduce liver infectivity, we compared ratios of heart vs. liver gene expression for the above three AAVs. While the heart vs. liver ratio of AAVM41 was greater than 10:1, this ratio was reversed to 1:3 in AAV9 and 1:6 in AAV6 (FIG. 4E). Consistently, the ratios of heart vs. liver vector DNA copy numbers also showed a similar trend to the luciferase activities among the three AAVs (FIG. 4F). These data thus demonstrated improved tropism to the heart and much reduced tropism to the liver by AAVM41.

We next used a β-galactosidase (LacZ) reporter gene to directly visualize transgene expression in cardiomyocytes and myofibers. At 2 weeks post vector i.v. injection in adult C57BJ/6L mice, approximately one half of the cardiomyocytes in the heart showed positive X-gal staining in AAV9- and AAVM41-treated mice (FIG. 5). Similar test was also performed in hamsters, a different and larger species. At 3 weeks post i.v. injection into adult F1B hamsters, nearly 100% of the cardiomyocytes showed positive X-gal staining in both AAV9 and AAVM41 treated groups (FIG. 5). Quantitative enzyme assays showed nearly identical levels of LacZ expression in the hearts of AAV9- and AAVM41-treated mice as well as hamsters (data not shown). In the skeletal muscles of the above mice and hamsters, however, AAVM41 was much less efficient than AAV9 (FIG. 5B). These results are consistent with those of luciferase reporter gene transfer, suggesting preferential targeting of AAVM41 to the myocardium.

Example 4 Additional Iterations of in vivo Screening

The coding sequences for the AAV capsids described in Example 2 were used as templates for reshuffling. To illustrate, the AAV capsid clones identified by screening heart tissue were reshuffled to generate a secondary heart library. Similarly, a secondary skeletal muscle library was generated from the capsid mutants identified in skeletal muscle. The secondary heart library was subjected to three successive screenings to identify those AAV capsid clones targeting heart (“HH” designation). The secondary skeletal muscle library was used for parallel screening for capsid clones targeting heart (designated “MH”) and skeletal muscle (designated “MM”). FIGS. 6A to 6TTTT show the nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of a representative number of AAV capsids identified from these three screens. In general, these particular clones exhibited relatively high frequency in heart or skeletal tissue and relatively low frequency in liver.

Example 5 Direct Infection of Cardiomyocytes and Skeletal Muscle by M41 Vector

Since AAVM41 was initially isolated from the muscle but showed best infectivity to the heart after systemic delivery, we wished to examine the direct infectivity of AAVM41 on primary cardiomyocyte culture or on skeletal muscles by intramuscular injection. The AAV-LacZ vectors packaged by AAVM41, AAV6 and AAV9 were used to infect primary cardiomyocytes isolated from neonatal rats. Four days later, less than 1% of the AAV9-infected cardiomyocytes expressed the LacZ gene, but approximately 20% or 80% of the M41 or AAV6 cells expressed the LacZ gene (FIG. 7A, top). Quantitative analysis showed that β-gal enzyme activities of AAVM41- or AAV6-infected cardiomyocytes were 2.8- or 6.2-fold of that of AAV9 (FIG. 7B). Similarly, the vector copy numbers in the cells were 2.3- and 10.3-fold of that of AAV9 (FIG. 7C). These data indicated that AAVM41 infectivity for cardiomyocytes was higher than AAV9 but lower than AAV6.

The above three AAV-LacZ vectors were then injected into mouse gastrocnemius muscle for comparison of skeletal muscle infectivities. Two weeks later X-gal staining of the muscle cryosections revealed the strongest expression by AAV6, intermediate expression by AAVM41 and weak expression by AAV9 (FIG. 7A, lower panels). Quantitative β-gal activities of AAV6-injected muscles were 6.1-fold and 53.8-fold of that of AAVM41 and AAV9 respectively (FIG. 7D). Together with the in vitro cardiomyocytes infection data, these results strongly suggest that the much improved systemic muscle and heart gene delivery by AAVM41 over AAV6 is most likely due to improved capability of crossing the tight endothelial barrier and reaching muscle cells.

Example 6 Delivery of δ-Sarcoglycan Gene via Mutant AAV Vectors

Since AAVM41 showed preferential gene transfer in the heart, we next investigated the utility of this vector for gene therapy in a genetic model of cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure and muscular dystrophy model, the δ-sarcoglycan (δ-SG) deficient TO-2 hamster. The TO-2 hamster is an animal model with a δ-sarcoglycan gene (δ-SG) deficiency manifesting the limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2F and heart failure (Homburger, et al. (1966) NY Acad. Sci. 138:14-27). Systemic gene transfer of δ-SG can effectively ameliorate cardiac and skeletal muscle pathology and profoundly improve function (Zhu, et al. (2005) Circulation 112:2650-2659).

Four months after i.v. injection of 1×10¹² v.g. of AAVM41-δ-SG vector, SG expression was detected predominantly in the heart by immunofluorescent (IF) staining (FIG. 8A). Nearly 100% of the cardiomyocytes showed strong and uniform δ-SG expression. However, only 10-30% of the skeletal muscle myofibers expressed δ-SG, as shown in the forelimb, tibialis anterior and tongue muscles. Western blotting confirmed strongest expression of δ-SG in the heart (FIG. 8B). No δ-SG expression was detected in the non-muscle tissues including the liver. The muscle-specific, heart-preferential transgene expression was accompanied by the lack of immune rejection or toxicity throughout the duration of the experiments.

We also evaluated the therapeutic efficacies of AAVM41-δ-SG treatment in the TO-2 hamsters, which manifest both cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy. First we measured serum levels of muscle creatine kinase activities and found no statistically significant difference between the treated and untreated groups (data not shown), suggesting insufficient therapeutic gene transfer in the skeletal muscles by AAVM41. This is consistent with the IF staining results (FIG. 8A). We continued to examine the therapeutic efficacy on cardiomyopathy. Upon necropsy, gross examination of the untreated control TO-2 hamster hearts showed markedly dilation and prominent calcification plaques. In contrast, the hearts of the treated TO-2 hamsters exhibited normal gross morphology, similar to those of wild-type control F1B hamsters (data not shown). Histological staining further revealed large areas of cardiomyocyte degeneration, fibrosis or calcification in the untreated TO-2 hamsters (data not shown). However, those pathological signs were dramatically reduced or completely diminished in the AAVM41-treated hamster hearts. Echocardiography examination of the treated TO-2 hamsters also showed great improvement on all major parameters of cardiac functions, including left ventricle end-systolic dimension, percent fractional shortening, and left ventricle posterior wall thickness, nearly identical to those of wild-type F1B hamsters, but significantly different from those of the untreated TO-2 hamsters (P<0.05 by Student's t-test) (data not shown). These data further demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy by AAVM41 gene delivery in improving cardiac functions of TO-2 hamsters.

Example 7 Resistance of M41 to Pre-Existing Neutralizing Antibodies in Pooled Human IgGs

We investigated AAVM41 for its resistance to preexisting neutralizing antibodies. Commercially available human IVIG (pooled human IgGs for intravenous use) was used as the source of antibodies. AAVM41 was compared with AAV2, the best characterized serotype, and AAV8, a new isolate with low prevalence of pre-existing antibodies in human population. The AAV2-, AAV8-, and AAVM41-LacZ vectors were pre-incubated with serial dilutions of IVIG, inoculated on Huh7 cell culture for 4 days and then assayed for LacZ expression as an indicator of vector resistance to neutralization. At 1:64 dilution of IVIG, AAV2 infectivity decreased to 33%±4% of its control without IVIG. But AAV8 and AAVM41 infectivities remained at 94%±4% and 83%±1% of their controls. Even at the highest IVIG concentration (1:8 dilution), AAV8 and AAVM41 still retained 33%±12% and 26%±3% of their infectivities, while AAV2 was nearly completely neutralized under the same condition (data not shown).

Example 8 Sustained Transgene Expression from AAV Mutant Vectors

AAV vector is well-known for its sustained transgene expression in transduced tissues. To determine whether this characteristic is retained for the optimized AAV vectors, time course experiments are conducted, wherein 3×10¹¹ vector genomes of modified rAAV vector are injected into C57BL/6J mice by tail veil route, with rAAV9 vector as a control. At one week, two weeks, two months and five months after injection, a group of mice is sacrificed for each virus. Tissues including heart, liver, diaphragm and tibialis anterior are used for luciferase assay and gene copy number detection for evaluation of the persistence of transgene expression mediated by the optimized AAV vectors.

Example 9 In vivo Screening for Resistance to Neutralizing Antibodies

For in vivo screening for resistance to neutralizing antibodies, a mixture of human IgGs (IVIG; a pool of IgG from thousands of donors) is injected into nude mice. The IVIG naturally contains a mixture of antibodies against all of the common AAVs seen by the human population. After IVIG into nude mice, the mutant AAV library is then injected into the mice and selection is carried out for viral genomes that entered the target tissue(s) of interest (heart, skeletal muscle, liver, etc). Those genomes that are isolated from the target tissue correspond to those capsids that are resistant to neutralization.

The foregoing is illustrative of the present invention, and is not to be construed as limiting thereof. The invention is defined by the following claims, with equivalents of the claims to be included therein. 

1-41. (canceled)
 42. A nucleic acid encoding an AAV capsid, the nucleic acid comprising an AAV capsid coding sequence selected from the group consisting of: (a) the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Q (HH67) (SEQ ID NO:55); (b) a nucleotide sequence that is at least 98% identical to the nucleotide sequence of FIG. 6Q (HH67) (SEQ ID NO:55); (c) a nucleotide sequence that encodes the AAV capsid encoded by the nucleotide sequence of (a) but that differs from the nucleotide sequence of (a) due to the degeneracy of the genetic code; and (d) a nucleotide sequence that encodes an AAV capsid that is at least 98% identical to the AAV capsid encoded by the nucleotide sequence of (a) and that substantially retains at least one property of the AAV capsid encoded by the nucleotide sequence of (a).
 43. The nucleic acid of claim 42, wherein the nucleic acid is a plasmid, phage, viral vector, bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC), or yeast artificial chromosome (YAC).
 44. The nucleic acid of claim 43, wherein the nucleic acid is an AAV vector comprising the coding sequence.
 45. The nucleic acid of claim 44, wherein the nucleic acid further comprises an AAV Rep coding sequence.
 46. A cell having the nucleic acid of claim 42 stably incorporated into its genome.
 47. A virus particle comprising the nucleic acid of claim
 42. 48. The virus particle of claim 47, wherein the virus particle is an AAV particle, an adenovirus particle, a herpesvirus particle, or a baculovirus particle.
 49. An AAV capsid encoded by the nucleic acid of claim
 42. 50. The AAV capsid of claim 49 covalently linked, bound to, or encapsidating a compound selected from the group consisting of a DNA molecule, an RNA molecule, a polypeptide, a carbohydrate, a lipid, and a small organic molecule.
 51. An AAV particle comprising: an AAV vector genome; and the AAV capsid of claim 49, wherein the AAV capsid encapsidates the AAV vector genome.
 52. The AAV particle of claim 51, wherein the AAV vector genome comprises a heterologous nucleic acid.
 53. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes an antisense RNA, microRNA or RNAi.
 54. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes a polypeptide.
 55. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes an immunogen.
 56. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes a therapeutic polypeptide.
 57. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes dystrophin, a mini-dystrophin, a micro-dystrophin, a laminin-α2, a mini-agrin, an α-sarcoglycan, a β-sarcoglycan, a γ-sarcoglycan, a δ-sarcoglycan, utrophin, Fukutin-related protein, myostatin pro-peptide, follistatin, dominant negative myostatin, IGF-1, a sarcoplasmic endoreticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA2a), a β-adrenergic receptor kinase inhibitor (βARKct), phospholamban, PI3 kinase, Pim-1, PGC-1α, SOD-1, SOD-2, EC-SOD, Kallikrein, HIF, thymosin-β4, mir-1, mir-133, mir-206, mir-208, inhibitor 1 of protein phosphatase 1, an anti-apoptotic factor, an angiogenic factor, insulin, Factor IX, Factor VIII, glucocerebrosidase, α-galactosidase A and/or lysosomal acid a glucosidase.
 58. The AAV particle of claim 52, wherein the heterologous nucleic acid encodes a reporter protein.
 59. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising the nucleic acid of claim 42 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 60. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising the cell of claim 46 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 61. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising the virus particle of claim 47 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 62. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising the AAV capsid of claim 50 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 63. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising the AAV particle of claim 52 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 64. A method of producing a recombinant AAV particle comprising an AAV capsid, the method comprising: providing a cell in vitro with a nucleic acid according to claim 1, an AAV rep coding sequence, an AAV vector genome comprising a heterologous nucleic acid, and helper functions for generating a productive AAV infection; and allowing assembly of the recombinant AAV particle comprising the AAV,capsid and encapsidating the AAV vector genome.
 65. A recombinant AAV particle produced by the method of claim
 64. 66. A method of delivering a heterologous nucleic acid to a cell in vitro, the method comprising administering the AAV particle of claim 52 to the cell.
 67. The method of claim 66, wherein the cell is a liver cell.
 68. A method of delivering a heterologous nucleic acid to a mammalian subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of the cell of claim 46 to the mammalian subject.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein the mammalian subject is a human subject.
 70. A method of delivering a heterologous nucleic acid to a mammalian subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of the AAV particle of claim 52 to the mammalian subject.
 71. The method of claim 70, wherein the mammalian subject is a human subject.
 72. A method of delivering a heterologous nucleic acid of interest to a mammalian subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of the pharmaceutical formulation of claim 60 to the mammalian subject.
 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the mammalian subject is a human subject.
 74. A method of delivering a heterologous nucleic acid of interest to a mammalian subject, the method comprising: administering an effective amount of the pharmaceutical formulation of claim 63 to the mammalian subject.
 75. The method of claim 74, wherein the mammalian subject is a human subject. 